Le transport de marchandises par mer constitue de nos jours un pilier du commerce international et l’un des principaux moteurs de la mondialisation. De ce fait, le droit du transport maritime de marchandises, en tant qu’élément déclencheur du droit maritime, reste toujours la discipline essentielle dans ce domaine. En raison du développement de la technologie de construction des navires et des modifications des modalités de l’exploitation maritime, les normes en vigueur, relatives au transport maritime, se trouvent confrontées aux changements évolutifs dans la pratique. Tout spécifiquement, en raison de l’absence d’une tradition à ce propos, le droit chinois s’est inspiré inévitablement des normes internationales, quant à son développement. À l’heure actuelle, la question qui se pose ici est de savoir s’il convient d’introduire de nouveaux instruments, et en particulier les Règles de Rotterdam, dans le processus de modernisation du droit positif chinois ? L’étude menée vise à présenter quelques avis de recommandation, proposés pour la réforme du droit chinois du transport maritime de marchandises, vis-à-vis les Règles de Rotterdam. Dans le cadre d’une économie mondialisée, la modernisation du droit positif chinois, et surtout en matière maritime, devrait se développer dans les directions suivantes : d’une part la participation et l’intégration au système international, et de l’autre la reconnaissance de sa particularité au sein de la législation / The carriage of goods by sea constitutes at present time a pillar of international trade and one of the principal engines for the globalization. For this reason, the law of the carriage of goods by sea, being as the primary trigger for the maritime law, remains always its essential position in this domain. Due to the technological progress in the construction of the vessels and to the changes of the operational mode of maritime exploitation, the relevant laws in force are confronted with progressive transformation in practice. Particularly in relation to the Chinese maritime law, because of absence of the tradition in this regard, it has been inspired inevitably by the international norms, with respect to its development. At the current time, the question here is whether to introduce some new instruments, and in particular the Rotterdam Rules, in the process of modernization of Chinese positive law ? The present research is intended to provide some recommendation notices, proposed for the reform of the Chinese law of carriage of goods by sea, vis-à-vis the Rotterdam Rules. In the context of a worldwide economy, the modernization of the Chinese positive law, and especially in terms of maritime law, should be deployed with the following sprits: the participation and the integration to the international system on the one hand, and the recognition of its particularities in the course of the legislation on the other hand

This thesis aims to investigate the consequences of a judgement issued by UK Supreme Court in November 2021, known within the shipping industry as the "CMA CGM Libra" case. This case is perceived by the industry to have affected hte the understanding of the concept of seaworthiness and due diligence, as they should be understood within the context of the Hague Rules and Hague Visby Rules.  The focus lies on the understanding of these two concepts within an English as well as Swedish context, in order to further conclude whether the Judgement may have changed the definitioin of these concepts in any way; from the perspecteve of English as well as Swedish maritime law. This also includes a thorough discussion about the extent of influence English maritime law has on Swedish maritime law, if any.  This text is suitable for anyone with an intererst in or objective to learn more about seaworthines and due diligence as these concepts shall be understood from an English and/or Swedish point of view, and/or in getting better aquainted with the reasoning of the UK Supreme Court in the Libra judgement. As mentioned, the relationship between the two legal systems (including Denmark and Norway) will also be discussed. Students of maritime law will likely be best suited to read and understand this thesis and the conclusions thereof.

The legal nature of the bill of lading as a negotiable document of title has allowed it to provide the basis of a system in which bankers provide credit for the financing of international sales contracts on the strength of the security afforded by the goods represented in the bill. The sea waybill has appeared as a substitute for the bill of lading and, despite its nature as a nonnegotiable document, it can be employed in a manner which allows it to provide collateral security to banks. Multimodal transport documents which may be issued in negotiable or non-negotiable form assume the same legal role as the bill oflading or sea waybill respectively. The inclusion of specific articles in the 1993 Revision of the UCP relating to non-negotiable sea waybills and multimodal transport documents affirms their acceptability to banks financing international sales contracts under documentary letters of credit. / Law / LL.M.

In the sea trade, the traditional paper-based bill of lading has played an important role across the globe for centuries, but with the advent of advanced commercial modes of transportation and communication, the central position of this document is under threat. The importance of the bill of lading still prevails as does the need of the functions that this document served in the past, although in a changed format. In the recent past, the world has witnessed a lot of debate about replacing this traditional paper-based document with an electronic equivalent that exhibits all of its functions and characteristics, both commercial and legal. More specifically, unlike many rival travel documents, such as the Sea Waybill, a bill of lading has two prominent features, that is to say, its negotiability and its acceptability as a document of title in certain legal jurisdictions that are required to be retained in an electronic bill of lading so as to also retain the prominence of this document in the future landscape. This thesis is, however, more concerned about the legal aspects of adopting the electronic bill of lading as a traditional paper-based legal document as well as an effective legal document in the present age. However, the scope of this debate remains primarily focused on the USA and UK jurisdictions. In the course of this thesis, it is observed that, in the past, the bill of lading has been subject to a variety of international regimes, such as The Hague Rules and The Hague-Visby Rules, and presently efforts are being made to arrive at a universal agreement under the umbrella of The Rotterdam Rules, but such an agreement is yet to arrive among the comity of nations. On the other hand, efforts made by the business community to introduce an electronic bill of lading are much louder and more evident. The private efforts, such as the SeaDocs System, CMI Rules, and the BOLERO Project, etc., were, however, received by the fellow business community with both applause as well as suspicion. At the same time, there are a number of concerns voiced by the international business community on the legislative adoptability in national and international jurisdictions and the courts’ approach in adjudicating cases involving electronic transactions and these are making the task of adoption of electronic bill of lading in the sea-based transactions a difficult task. Therefore, in the absence of any formal legal backing from national and international legislations, these attempts could not achieve the desired results. In this thesis, the present situation of the acceptability of electronic transactions in general, and of the electronic bill of lading specifically, has also been discussed with reference to certain national jurisdictions, such as Australia, India, South Korea and China, in order to present comparative perspectives on the preparedness of these nations. On the regional level, the efforts made by the European Union have also been discussed to promote electronic transactions within its jurisdiction. All the discussion, however, leads to the situation where the level of acceptability of electronic bill of lading in the near future is found to be dependent upon the official efforts from the national governments and putting these efforts towards arriving at an agreement on Rotterdam Rules as early as possible. The other area of importance revealed in this thesis is the need for change in juristic approach by the courts while interpreting and adjudicating upon cases involving electronic transactions. On the whole, this thesis has provided a cohesive and systematic review, synthesis and analysis of the history of the bill of lading, its importance as a document of title, and attempts to incorporate its important functions within the fast-paced electronic shipping commerce of today. In such a way it has provided a valuable contribution to the literature by providing a comprehensive resource for jurists, policy-makers and the business community alike, as they work towards adapting the bill of lading so that it might be successfully applied in electronic form.

Le transport maritime a connu, ces trente dernières années, une forte croissance qui a des conséquences sur le milieu marin sensible aux pollutions. Le droit maritime s'inscrit généralement dans une démarche attentiste construite en réaction aux catastrophes écologiques successives, et liée à la nécessaire conciliation des intérêts économiques des armateurs et de l'urgence des enjeux environnementaux. Le poids économique du transport maritime influe fortement sur les schémas décisionnels des Etats qui, dans leur triple fonction d'Etat côtier, Etat du port et/ou Etat du pavillon, sont souvent amenés à construire des régimes de complaisance en matières fiscale, économique, sociale et environnementale. Des mesures pourraient être proposées pour établir un équilibre au sein de l'OMI, et restaurer un lien substantiel et transparent entre les Etats, les flottes et les armateurs. De fait, le droit maritime moderne laisse place à d'autres acteurs qui interviennent dans les modes de gouvernance présidant à l'édiction et l'application du droit, notamment à travers les outils du lobbying. L'ouverture plus large du processus normatif et des voies de sanction/réparation à l'ensemble des parties prenantes pourrait garantir une meilleure intégration de la norme environnementale dans le droit du transport maritime. Si le dialogue avec les collectivités locales est rendu complexe par leur statut, à la fois victimes, acteurs et entraves au droit, la place accrue des ONG, aujourd'hui limitée dans le cadre juridictionnel international, serait le gage de la réalisation de ces objectifs, et notamment d'une meilleure effectivité du droit. / Sea transport has seen strong growth over the past 30 years, which impacts on the marine environment, an environment sensitive to pollution. Maritime law generally adheres to a wait-and-see approach, developed as a reaction to successive environmental disasters, and arising from a much-needed reconciliation of shipowners' economic interests and the pressing nature of environmental issues. The States' decision making process is strongly influenced by the economic importance of sea transport who, in their triple function of coastal State, port State and/or flag State are often driven to make legislations of convenience in tax, economic, social and environmental matters. Measures could be proposed to develop laws in order to establish a balance within the IMO, and restore a transparent and genuine link between States, fleets and shipowners. In fact, modern maritime law allows room, in particular through lobbying tools, for other parties who intervene on the enactment and implementation of the law ruled by governance procedures. This widening of the normative process and avenues for sanction/redress to all stakeholders could ensure a better integration of environmental standards in maritime law. If the dialogue with local authorities is complicated by their status, at the same time victims, actors and obstruction of rights, the development of NGOs, currently limited in the international jurisdictional framework, would guarantee these objectives are achieved, including a better effectiveness of the law. The experience gained in the field of a CIFRE thesis, within the legal department of Surfrider Foundation Europe illustrates and establishes these avenues of improvement.

Sub-Saharan African nations are highly dependent on the agricultural sector for livelihoods. South Africa and Nigeria depend on agriculture due to the availability of abundant land, labour and natural resources. According to the theory of comparative advantage a state exports the products that it has a comparative advantage in and imports those where it does not have a comparative advantage. This is facilitated by international trade. International trade is defined as trade among nations that enables a nation to buy certain products that it cannot produce from other nations at a cheaper rate. Furthermore, it is expected that every sovereign state would be able to provide not only food and water but also good access to sufficient food and water to its people. Section 27.1b of Chapter 2 of the South African Constitution of 1996 and Article 16 of Nigeria’s Constitution of 1999 enshrine this provision. A number of factors impact food security. The first is international trade. This is spelt out in the World Trade Organization (WTO) Agreement on Agriculture (AoA). The agreement establishing the WTO is commonly known as the “Marrakesh Agreement.” It was signed in Marrakesh, Morocco on the 15th of April, 1994, at the end of the Uruguay Round of Multiple Trade Negotiations. The AoA consists of three pillars: market access, export subsidies and domestic support .Market access requires all parties to the AoA to remove non-tariff barriers which comprise of import quotas and restrictions and convert them to tariffs; a process known as ‘tariffication’. States are also obliged to reduce export subsidies at the same time as increasing their imports. Domestic support, states are to remove subsidy it gives to its people a process that increases the price of goods. Another factor is trade liberalization. This study examines the effects of WTO agricultural trade liberalization on food security and the mechanisms available to address this issue. It focuses on the food security implications of the WTO AoA and asserts that the AoA favours agricultural producers in developed countries. The study seeks to ascertain the extent to which the realization of the objectives of the agreement will promote food security by looking into the abovementioned three pillars and their relationship with food security. / Thesis (LL.M.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2013.

The management and administration of legally defined marine boundaries in Australia is subject to a variety of political, legal and technical challenges. The purpose of this thesis is to address three of the technical challenges faced in the implementation of marine boundaries which cannot be dealt with by applying conventional land cadastre and land administration principles. The three challenges that are identified and addressed are (i) marine boundary delimitation and positioning uncertainty, (ii) the construction and maintenance of four dimensional marine parcels, and (iii) the modelling and management of marine boundary uncertainty metadata.

The legal nature of the bill of lading as a negotiable document of title has allowed it to provide the basis of a system in which bankers provide credit for the financing of international sales contracts on the strength of the security afforded by the goods represented in the bill. The sea waybill has appeared as a substitute for the bill of lading and, despite its nature as a nonnegotiable document, it can be employed in a manner which allows it to provide collateral security to banks. Multimodal transport documents which may be issued in negotiable or non-negotiable form assume the same legal role as the bill oflading or sea waybill respectively. The inclusion of specific articles in the 1993 Revision of the UCP relating to non-negotiable sea waybills and multimodal transport documents affirms their acceptability to banks financing international sales contracts under documentary letters of credit. / Law / LL.M.

Le code des transports accueille désormais les règles de droit social maritime. Le gouvernement a été habilité à procéder, en 2010, à une recodification à droit constant de ses dispositions éparses, notamment contenues dans le code du travail et le code du travail maritime. Alors que cette opération devait intervenir sans modification de l’état du droit, une certaine inconstance s’est révélée. La structure de la matière a été bouleversée. Elle démontre une ambivalence : le code des transports est exhibé comme instrument du progrès social, mais il peut également devenir un outil de dérèglementation. D'autant que sa partie réglementaire reste très incomplète. L'articulation du nouveau code avec le code du travail interroge également, notamment sous l'angle des rapports entre le droit commun et le droit spécial. Cette réécriture a, de surcroît, subit l'influence du droit international. L’intégration de la convention du travail maritime de l’Organisation internationale du travail a permis de réaffirmer les principes directeurs au fondement de la matière ainsi que la spécificité du droit applicable aux gens de mer. Pour autant, ces dynamiques normatives ont des effets paradoxaux car le droit international participe tour à tour à la destruction et à la reconstruction des droits nationaux. Aussi, la réécriture de la matière au sein du code des transports pourrait être annonciatrice d’un alignement du fond du droit social maritime sur les standards internationaux qui, à l'échelle du droit national français, ne sont pas nécessairement plus protecteurs. Ce mouvement du droit s'explique par une rude concurrence internationale propice à l'expression du dumping social / The transport code now hosts social maritime law rules. The government was empowered to proceed, in 2010, to a recodification on the basis of established law of its disparate provisions, including those contained in both the labour code and the maritime labour code. Although this operation was to take place without changing the rule of law, a certain instability became obvious. The subject matter's structure was dramatically altered. It reveals an ambivalence : the transport code is exhibited as an instrument of social progress, yet it may also become a deregulation tool. To compound matters, its regulatory aspect remains very incomplete. The articulation of the new code with the labour code is equally perplexing, most notably with regard to the relationship between common law and special law. This rewriting has, in addition, undergone the influence of international law. The integration of the International labour organization's maritime labour convention made it possible to reaffirm the foundational guidelines of this topic as well as the specificity of laws applicable to seafarers. Moreover, these normative dynamics have paradoxical effects. In fact, international law contributes alternately to the destruction and reconstruction of national rights. Thus, the rewriting of the topic within the transport code could be the harbinger of an alignment of maritime social legal foundations with international standards, which, when compared with french law, are not necessarily more protective. This legal evolution reflects is due to a ruthless international competition that enables social dumping conditions

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