Over the past twenty years a growth in sub-standard shipping has been observed. The thesis identifies the causes of this growth. It then identifies Port State Control (PSC) as a measure evolved by some states, with the purpose of removing sub-standard shipping from their waters, and thereby improving maritime safety and the protection of the environment. The purposeo f this programmeo f researchi s to assessth e effectivenesso f PSC in achieving its purpose. An eclectic research methodology has been adopted which first considers, in depth, the global and regional context in which PSC functions. Taking the Port of Hong Kong as an example, the study then reviews how PSC operates in practice. Shipping casualty data is examined to test the merits of targeting ships for PSC inspection. Finally the expert opinion of both official and wider marine communities in Hong Kong is sampled in order to form an overall view on the effectiveness of PSC. The research reveals considerable agreement between all parties that PSC, in general is achieving its purpose. It also recognizes that PSC should only be a "second line of defence" in combating sub-standard shipping. The first line remains Flag State enforcement of standards, accompanied by wider development of a safety culture in the shipping industry

The condition known as myalgic encephalomyelitis or chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) is an illness of unknown aetiology which affects over 150 000 persons in the UK. Whilst the cause of the condition is the subject of intense medical debate, the official view is that it is a form of atypical depression or somatisation disorder. This view is at odds with the views of many sufferers who claim that ME/CFS is a pathological disease that renders them severely incapacitated. Sufferers' maintain that, because their condition is regarded as a minor, psychological illness, its' severity is not recognised. Thus, rather than being granted assistance, their appeals for help are often met with accusations of malingering or hypochondriasis. This, they argue, results in significant marginalisation. In short, sufferers' state that they experience bodily change that is profound and disabling, however, their claims to be `really ill', are ignored. ME/CFS is one of a number of conditions whose meanings are contested. Other such conditions include Gulf war syndrome, repetitive strain injury, organophosphate poisoning, and multiple chemical sensitivity. These conditions are worthy of sociological study because they `make visible' the way that social definitions of illness impact on the experience of illness. The data for this thesis is derived from an empirical study of sufferers' experiences of ME/CFS. Using both qualitative and quantitative research methods, the study explores the embodied experience of ME/CFS and the illness careers of sufferers. The findings of the study are analysed in the light of the sociological literature on `the cultural expectations surrounding illness', `embodiment' and `the experience of illness'. Whilst the past literature has either focused on `the cultural expectations surrounding illness' or `the experience of illness', this thesis brings together the two areas and uncovers the complex set of relations and pathways that emerge when ideas about illness clash. The findings have implications for the sociological understanding of the illness experience. They are particularly relevant because, as the chronically ill population expands, there is an increasing emphasis on individual responsibility for illness. Thus, whilst contested illnesses are a blatant example of what happens when sufferers' are held accountable for being ill, the findings have implications for the experience of all chronic illness.

The use of tidal information and its application to, and value within, the study of climate change, sea-level rise and the tides effects on marine life is well known. However, little work has been done on the more technical aspects of tidal measurements and the use within maritime safety in accordance with international standards. This thesis will address the key technical elements in the design and realisation of the national tide gauge network around the South African coastline and how the data collected can be used to increase maritime safety around the South African coast, as well as the additional benefits the data may have both nationally and internationally. The South African Navy's national tide database, both actual records and predictions, as well as current and historical records, was used in order to establish the requirements for a sustainable tide gauge network. In addition, various case studies and data analysis were carried out, as were personal communications with various naval personnel. Establishing and maintaining a sustainable tide gauge network requires research and testing of various tide gauges. Identification of the correct locations to install the tide gauges is key to its success. Although the current South African Tide gauge network is not complete it does provide adequate coverage and is vitally important in the production of navigational products. The manner in which the raw collected tide data is processed and used for creating predictions meets international requirements and standards. Tidal predictions are a necessity for shallow water maritime operations and shallow water navigation, under keel and masthead clearances. The tide gauge network provides data to various organisations for storm surge and tsunami warnings while contributing to the “blue economy” through projects like Operation Phakisa. This thesis provides a comprehensive overview of South Africa's tide gauge network, investigates and justifies the reasons behind the locations and gives in depth examples of the essential use of tidal information for maritime safety.

"Mémoire présenté à la faculté des études supérieures en vue de l'obtention du grade de maître en droit (LL.M.)". Ce mémoire a été accepté à l'unanimité et classé parmi les 15% des mémoires de la discipline. / Bien qu'en apparente amélioration, l'état de la sécurité maritime n'est pas aussi reluisant que ne le laissent croire les statistiques en la matière. Une série d'accidents ayant culminé avec le naufrage de l'Erika le long des côtes françaises en décembre 1999 témoignent que des failles persistent, notamment dans son système juridique. Ces failles renvoient essentiellement à l'application et au contrôle déficients des règles juridiques existantes en la matière, voire leur évitement par les acteurs y associés. Or, le susdit naufrage démontra que cette déficience n'est pas le propre de certains intervenants isolés, traditionnellement identifiés comme responsables de tous les maux dans le transport maritime, qu'il s'agisse d'armateurs « laxistes » ou d'États de pavillons « de complaisance », mais bel et bien d'un réseau entier d'acteurs. Cette « chaîne » d'acteurs responsables de l'application des règles de la sécurité maritime se révéla, en fait, particulièrement compromise dans le cas de l'Erika et des failles furent décelées dans chacune de ses composantes; allant des chantiers navals ayant construit ou réparé le navire, jusqu'aux autorités portuaires l'ayant inspecté/détenu, en passant par les propriétaires du navire, ses gestionnaires, financiers, assureurs, sociétés de classification, son État de pavillon, affréteur, capitaine et son équipage, pour ne nommer qu'eux. Ainsi, l'affaire de l'Erika révéla l'existence - et l'étendue véritable - de ce qu'il fut convenu de désigner comme une « chaîne de responsabilité » dans le domaine de la sécurité maritime. C'est, donc, cette chaîne d'acteurs et, le cas échéant, les mesures (légales et autres) élaborées en vue de sa responsabilisation accrue et de l'amélioration de sa fiabilité et, par extension, de celle du régime juridique de la sécurité maritime tout entier (en vue d'une mise en oeuvre plus efficiente des règles y afférentes), que l'on se propose d'étudier. Pour ce faire, l'on procède à partir de ce que l'on peut convenir de considérer comme étant la dualité fondamentale du concept de sécurité maritime (« maritime safety »), renvoyant, d'une part, à la sécurité des navires (« ship safety ») et, d'autre part, à la sécurité de leur exploitation et des opérations de transport (« shipping safety »). Dans l'étude de la sécurité des navires, il sera d'abord question des règles portant sur la conception, la construction, l'entretien et la répélration de ces derniers. Après un bref aperçu du cadre d'élaboration de ces règles -lui-même sans assises sûres - et de leur contenu, une analyse des acteurs chargés de leur application lors de chacune desdites opérations fera ressortir les nombreuses failles en la matière. L'on s'attardera, en second lieu, aux divers contrôles conditionnant cette sécurité, et en l'occurrence au régime de certification, d'inspections et de sanctions présent dans le domaine. L'imperfection de ce régime transparaîtra notamment de la prolifération de ces contrôles. Traditionnellement réservés aux sociétés de classification et aux États du pavillon (à la lumière du droit international), ceux-ci, jugés défaillants, en sont venus à être également exercés par les États du port et une demi-dizaine d'acteurs individuels. Il sera, donc, question de la nature et l'étendue de ces contrôles et des initiatives et développements propres à chacun. S'agissant, cette fois, de l'exploitation des navires, il sera question de la sécurité autant dans la gestion corporative maritime qu'en matière d'équipage des navires. S'agissant de gestion corporative, après une analyse de l'organisation du métier et des fonctions d'armateur, l'on s'attardera sur les pratiques mêmes de gestion au sein de l'industrie et les tentatives de régulation et d'assainissement de ces dernières (au niveau international). La sécurité en matière d'équipage, renverra, quant à elle, à la compétence de celui-ci et à ses conditions de travail - qu'elles aient trait aux rapports individuels ou collectifs - ainsi qu'aux initiatives d'amélioration de ces dernières présentes, ici aussi, au niveau international. Un bref aperçu de la controverse entourant la responsabilité du capitaine du navire suite à des accidents en mer s'ensuivra. Il sera, enfin, question des (principales) opérations de transport maritime, en l'occurrence les opérations portuaires et de navigation, mais aussi la 'fin' de ces opérations et la pratique dite du recyclage des navires. Pour ce qui est des opérations portuaires, des failles dans la sécurité transparaîtront autant au niveau des infrastructures, des services que du personnel des ports. Pour ce qui est des opérations de navigation, l'on traitera d'abord des développements affectant la sécurité dans la navigation en eaux intérieures, s'agissant des diverses aides à la navigation et services de trafic maritimes offerts par les autorités côtières, ainsi que des carences du système international de navigation en haute mer. Il sera, enfin, question de la pratique du recyclage des navires où des initiatives de la part de l'industrie ont récemment vu le jour en matière de sécurité suite à une conscientisation accrue des implications que cette pratique pouvait comporter en la matière (particulièrement du point de vue environnemental). Cette recherche est à jour en date du 30 août 2002. / Although supposedly improving, the present state of maritime safety is not as enviable as the statistics on the subject might show. A series of accidents culminating in the sinking of the Erika near the french coast on december 1999 prove that many failings persist, particularly in its legal regime. These failings essentiaIly have to do with the deficient application of the existing rules and even their avoidance by the actors involved in this field. The above-mentioned sinking showed that this deficiency and avoidance is not to be associated with a few isolated actors, traditionaIly identified as being responsible for all the problems in maritime transportation, be it 'irresponsible' shipowners or Flag States 'of convenience', but that it is to be found throughout the entire chain of actors involved in the application of the nonns relating to maritime safety. In fact, all of these actors were found to bear sorne degree of responsibility or blame for the events leading up to the Erika tragedy; from the shipbuidmg or shiprepair yards all the way up to the various port State administrations which inspected and/or detained the ship, including the ship's owners, managers, bankers, insurers, classification societies, Flag State, charterer, captain and crew, to name a few. Therefore, the Erika matter revealed the existence - and true extent - of what has come to be known as the "chain ofresponsibility" in maritime safety. It is this chain of actors and the various measures (legal and other) that have been taken to ensure its improvement and, by definition, the improvement of the legal regime of maritime safety as a whole - in view of a better application of nonns - that we attempt to analyze. In this respect, we proceed from what can be identified as the fundamental duality of the concept of maritime safety, namely ship safety and shipping safety. In analyzing ship safety we first refer to the rules having to do with the design construction, maintenance and repair of ships. Following a brief overview of the context in which these rules are drafted - itself fraught with uncertainties - and their content, a study of the actors involved in their application during each of these operations reveals the failings in this field. We then analyze the various types of controls existing in view of ensuring that this safety is maintained and in particular the certification, inspection and sanctions regime. The defects in this regime emanate from the proliferation of these diverse controls. Traditionally reserved to classification societies and flag states (as prescribed by international law), these controls are now as weIl being exercised by various port states and about half a dozen individual actors. The nature and extent of these controls is therefore analyzed as well as the various initiatives and developments relating to each. As for shipping safety, this has to do as much with the various conditions of operation of a ship as with the transport operations themselves. The conditions of operation of a ship essentially refer to the safety of its management as well as that relating to the crew. Regarding safety of management, following an overview of the nature and present-day functions of the shipowner, we study the various management practices through the industry as weIl as the recent attempts (at the international level) to regulate and improve these. As for safety matters relating to crew, these refer as much to the crew' s competence as to their working conditions aboard the ship - that they refer to their individual or collective rights - including the efforts - in the international scene as well - to regulate and improve these. A brief overview of the responsibility of the ship' s captain in the event of an accident at sea follows. The (main) transportation operations, name1y port and navigational operations as well as the regime prevailing when these 'end', namely the practice of ship recyc1ing, are, finally, analyzed. Regarrding port operations, deficiencies in safety emanate as much through port infrastructures, services as well as personnel. As for navigational operations, we first analyze the various developments relating to safety in national waters, namely navigational aids as well as vessel traffic services offered by coastal States, and then explore the failings of the international navigational system in the high seas. We finaIly, refer to the practice of ship recyc1ing where initiatives have recently been taken by the industry to improve safety matters foIlowing a better awareness of the potential implications of the practice as relates to safety (and in particular environmental) matters. This research is current as of August 30th, 2002.

<p>Although the term maritime safety is widely used in the maritime domain, there is no exact definition of what is included in it. This thesis is an explorative study with focus on the Vessel Traffic Service domain. VTS operators were interviewed and observed to gain insights in how maritime safety is constructed from the perspective of an operator. Further, definitions of maritime safety by central organizations in the maritime domain have been studied through a literature study and several interviews.</p><p>The results of the study indicate that there is no common definition of the term maritime safety. The organizations generally identify maritime safety as an overall goal or an umbrella term for measures such as traffic separation schemes or fairway design etc. In contrast to this, the analysis of the data obtained indicates that VTS operators define maritime safety as a context-dependent condition which is shaped by their own action.</p><p>It is concluded that there is a gap between the central actors’ and the VTS operators’ understanding and definition of maritime safety. To increase the overall safety in the maritime domain, there is the need to overcome this gap through constructing common values, norms and identities. Instead of having several definitions of maritime safety, there should be one definition which can capture the fact of safety being a dynamic condition which is shaped by the enactment of reliability through, in this case, the VTS operators.</p><p>Finally, the VTS as service to the maritime community should be seen as the subject in the construction and promotion of maritime safety, not as just an object.</p>

Globalization refers to the reduction of economic, cultural and social differences among different regions. It describes the process of these regional aspects to become integrated through the advancement of transportation, communication and trade. The goal is to form a more unify entity through exchange, interaction and interdependence between each nations without being limited by the distances. Under the globalization influences, the world¡¦s marine affairs has been in focusing on the peaceful coexistence and sustainable development of the sea. A single country is no longer independent off the development and activities around the sea without join cooperation at regional territory or with the world, especially the nontraditional maritime security. Nations have been dealing with these problems through international convention, regional conventions and multilateral agreements. The present work carried out a comparative analysis with regard to the recent development of marine affairs between China and Taiwan. The research has perceived to examine the differences of policy, legal system and institutional management, and enforcement that exist at the cross-strait. The main focus is to identify the feasible issues for cooperation in order to breaking the dead lock among the cross-strait maritime affairs. There are problems of direct talk without communication platform and appropriate mechanism at the both sides of cross-strait. In addition, both sides have different focus on policy, legal systems, management, and enforcement compare to international trends. As a result, the differences cause the difficulties for the integration between the cross-strait on the sustainable development, maritime safety, cooperation development, and peaceful coexistence. This thesis conclude that the cross-strait could resolve the issue through proper communication platform and cooperation mechanism to deal with the low political sensitivity issues such as the marine affairs, by implementing a cross talk on a regular basis , and lead to the signing of the agreement for marine affairs at least for the short term. In the long run, the cross-strait shall create a legal system abided by both sides, where it meets with the international framework. For this it is imperative to establish the marine affair department responsible for integrating the marine management between the cross-strait. The research survey provides the key issues and suggestions that the cross-strait can precede a radical improvement in marine affairs and improve practical cooperation without causing serious dispute or disagreement.

Despite an extensive system of Port state controls (PSC) on ships, inspection loopholes in European control functions have been reported. Furthermore, risk factors associated with fatigue, stress and a poorly developed safety culture on board ships have been identified in earlier research. These combined risk factors may pose a serious threat to maritime safety. With this as a point of departure, this thesis aims to investigate the perceived work situation for Swedish inspectors from an inspector’s point of view concerning professional challenges, status and identity for inspectors and the perceived quality of Paris MoU inspection system and the Swedish inspection organization. In this study, the activities of Swedish PSC inspectors are viewed as a profession and the inspectors are viewed as bureaucrats. One of the principals for bureaucracy is that its servants should exercise their authority according to the common good, be autonomous, rational, reliable and responsible. The results indicate that organizational and management reforms have put the PSC bureaucrat under pressure to become more market oriented. Due to the responsibilities inherent in the profession of inspector within the complex structure of shipping, these organizational and management reforms conflict with the PSC inspector’s autonomy and professional role. Inspectors perceive that their expertise and integrity are vital for the success of their work. They also consider the high degree of control that the Swedish inspection organization exercises on the inspectors’ work as limiting to their autonomy and ability to make professional decisions. Some level of control may fulfil a need of support from the Swedish inspection organization, but too much control hampers the professional self-sufficiency and freedom of action. The inspectors in this study reveal considerable ambivalence towards the quality and complexity of ship safety inspections carried out in Sweden and within the Paris MoU system. / <p>The research has been funded by, the Swedish Mercantile Marine Foundation.</p>

Bien qu'en apparente amélioration, l'état de la sécurité maritime n'est pas aussi reluisant que ne le laissent croire les statistiques en la matière. Une série d'accidents ayant culminé avec le naufrage de l'Erika le long des côtes françaises en décembre 1999 témoignent que des failles persistent, notamment dans son système juridique. Ces failles renvoient essentiellement à l'application et au contrôle déficients des règles juridiques existantes en la matière, voire leur évitement par les acteurs y associés. Or, le susdit naufrage démontra que cette déficience n'est pas le propre de certains intervenants isolés, traditionnellement identifiés comme responsables de tous les maux dans le transport maritime, qu'il s'agisse d'armateurs « laxistes » ou d'États de pavillons « de complaisance », mais bel et bien d'un réseau entier d'acteurs. Cette « chaîne » d'acteurs responsables de l'application des règles de la sécurité maritime se révéla, en fait, particulièrement compromise dans le cas de l'Erika et des failles furent décelées dans chacune de ses composantes; allant des chantiers navals ayant construit ou réparé le navire, jusqu'aux autorités portuaires l'ayant inspecté/détenu, en passant par les propriétaires du navire, ses gestionnaires, financiers, assureurs, sociétés de classification, son État de pavillon, affréteur, capitaine et son équipage, pour ne nommer qu'eux. Ainsi, l'affaire de l'Erika révéla l'existence - et l'étendue véritable - de ce qu'il fut convenu de désigner comme une « chaîne de responsabilité » dans le domaine de la sécurité maritime. C'est, donc, cette chaîne d'acteurs et, le cas échéant, les mesures (légales et autres) élaborées en vue de sa responsabilisation accrue et de l'amélioration de sa fiabilité et, par extension, de celle du régime juridique de la sécurité maritime tout entier (en vue d'une mise en oeuvre plus efficiente des règles y afférentes), que l'on se propose d'étudier. Pour ce faire, l'on procède à partir de ce que l'on peut convenir de considérer comme étant la dualité fondamentale du concept de sécurité maritime (« maritime safety »), renvoyant, d'une part, à la sécurité des navires (« ship safety ») et, d'autre part, à la sécurité de leur exploitation et des opérations de transport (« shipping safety »). Dans l'étude de la sécurité des navires, il sera d'abord question des règles portant sur la conception, la construction, l'entretien et la répélration de ces derniers. Après un bref aperçu du cadre d'élaboration de ces règles -lui-même sans assises sûres - et de leur contenu, une analyse des acteurs chargés de leur application lors de chacune desdites opérations fera ressortir les nombreuses failles en la matière. L'on s'attardera, en second lieu, aux divers contrôles conditionnant cette sécurité, et en l'occurrence au régime de certification, d'inspections et de sanctions présent dans le domaine. L'imperfection de ce régime transparaîtra notamment de la prolifération de ces contrôles. Traditionnellement réservés aux sociétés de classification et aux États du pavillon (à la lumière du droit international), ceux-ci, jugés défaillants, en sont venus à être également exercés par les États du port et une demi-dizaine d'acteurs individuels. Il sera, donc, question de la nature et l'étendue de ces contrôles et des initiatives et développements propres à chacun. S'agissant, cette fois, de l'exploitation des navires, il sera question de la sécurité autant dans la gestion corporative maritime qu'en matière d'équipage des navires. S'agissant de gestion corporative, après une analyse de l'organisation du métier et des fonctions d'armateur, l'on s'attardera sur les pratiques mêmes de gestion au sein de l'industrie et les tentatives de régulation et d'assainissement de ces dernières (au niveau international). La sécurité en matière d'équipage, renverra, quant à elle, à la compétence de celui-ci et à ses conditions de travail - qu'elles aient trait aux rapports individuels ou collectifs - ainsi qu'aux initiatives d'amélioration de ces dernières présentes, ici aussi, au niveau international. Un bref aperçu de la controverse entourant la responsabilité du capitaine du navire suite à des accidents en mer s'ensuivra. Il sera, enfin, question des (principales) opérations de transport maritime, en l'occurrence les opérations portuaires et de navigation, mais aussi la 'fin' de ces opérations et la pratique dite du recyclage des navires. Pour ce qui est des opérations portuaires, des failles dans la sécurité transparaîtront autant au niveau des infrastructures, des services que du personnel des ports. Pour ce qui est des opérations de navigation, l'on traitera d'abord des développements affectant la sécurité dans la navigation en eaux intérieures, s'agissant des diverses aides à la navigation et services de trafic maritimes offerts par les autorités côtières, ainsi que des carences du système international de navigation en haute mer. Il sera, enfin, question de la pratique du recyclage des navires où des initiatives de la part de l'industrie ont récemment vu le jour en matière de sécurité suite à une conscientisation accrue des implications que cette pratique pouvait comporter en la matière (particulièrement du point de vue environnemental). Cette recherche est à jour en date du 30 août 2002. / Although supposedly improving, the present state of maritime safety is not as enviable as the statistics on the subject might show. A series of accidents culminating in the sinking of the Erika near the french coast on december 1999 prove that many failings persist, particularly in its legal regime. These failings essentiaIly have to do with the deficient application of the existing rules and even their avoidance by the actors involved in this field. The above-mentioned sinking showed that this deficiency and avoidance is not to be associated with a few isolated actors, traditionaIly identified as being responsible for all the problems in maritime transportation, be it 'irresponsible' shipowners or Flag States 'of convenience', but that it is to be found throughout the entire chain of actors involved in the application of the nonns relating to maritime safety. In fact, all of these actors were found to bear sorne degree of responsibility or blame for the events leading up to the Erika tragedy; from the shipbuidmg or shiprepair yards all the way up to the various port State administrations which inspected and/or detained the ship, including the ship's owners, managers, bankers, insurers, classification societies, Flag State, charterer, captain and crew, to name a few. Therefore, the Erika matter revealed the existence - and true extent - of what has come to be known as the "chain ofresponsibility" in maritime safety. It is this chain of actors and the various measures (legal and other) that have been taken to ensure its improvement and, by definition, the improvement of the legal regime of maritime safety as a whole - in view of a better application of nonns - that we attempt to analyze. In this respect, we proceed from what can be identified as the fundamental duality of the concept of maritime safety, namely ship safety and shipping safety. In analyzing ship safety we first refer to the rules having to do with the design construction, maintenance and repair of ships. Following a brief overview of the context in which these rules are drafted - itself fraught with uncertainties - and their content, a study of the actors involved in their application during each of these operations reveals the failings in this field. We then analyze the various types of controls existing in view of ensuring that this safety is maintained and in particular the certification, inspection and sanctions regime. The defects in this regime emanate from the proliferation of these diverse controls. Traditionally reserved to classification societies and flag states (as prescribed by international law), these controls are now as weIl being exercised by various port states and about half a dozen individual actors. The nature and extent of these controls is therefore analyzed as well as the various initiatives and developments relating to each. As for shipping safety, this has to do as much with the various conditions of operation of a ship as with the transport operations themselves. The conditions of operation of a ship essentially refer to the safety of its management as well as that relating to the crew. Regarding safety of management, following an overview of the nature and present-day functions of the shipowner, we study the various management practices through the industry as weIl as the recent attempts (at the international level) to regulate and improve these. As for safety matters relating to crew, these refer as much to the crew' s competence as to their working conditions aboard the ship - that they refer to their individual or collective rights - including the efforts - in the international scene as well - to regulate and improve these. A brief overview of the responsibility of the ship' s captain in the event of an accident at sea follows. The (main) transportation operations, name1y port and navigational operations as well as the regime prevailing when these 'end', namely the practice of ship recyc1ing, are, finally, analyzed. Regarrding port operations, deficiencies in safety emanate as much through port infrastructures, services as well as personnel. As for navigational operations, we first analyze the various developments relating to safety in national waters, namely navigational aids as well as vessel traffic services offered by coastal States, and then explore the failings of the international navigational system in the high seas. We finaIly, refer to the practice of ship recyc1ing where initiatives have recently been taken by the industry to improve safety matters foIlowing a better awareness of the potential implications of the practice as relates to safety (and in particular environmental) matters. This research is current as of August 30th, 2002. / "Mémoire présenté à la faculté des études supérieures en vue de l'obtention du grade de maître en droit (LL.M.)". Ce mémoire a été accepté à l'unanimité et classé parmi les 15% des mémoires de la discipline.

Although the term maritime safety is widely used in the maritime domain, there is no exact definition of what is included in it. This thesis is an explorative study with focus on the Vessel Traffic Service domain. VTS operators were interviewed and observed to gain insights in how maritime safety is constructed from the perspective of an operator. Further, definitions of maritime safety by central organizations in the maritime domain have been studied through a literature study and several interviews. The results of the study indicate that there is no common definition of the term maritime safety. The organizations generally identify maritime safety as an overall goal or an umbrella term for measures such as traffic separation schemes or fairway design etc. In contrast to this, the analysis of the data obtained indicates that VTS operators define maritime safety as a context-dependent condition which is shaped by their own action. It is concluded that there is a gap between the central actors’ and the VTS operators’ understanding and definition of maritime safety. To increase the overall safety in the maritime domain, there is the need to overcome this gap through constructing common values, norms and identities. Instead of having several definitions of maritime safety, there should be one definition which can capture the fact of safety being a dynamic condition which is shaped by the enactment of reliability through, in this case, the VTS operators. Finally, the VTS as service to the maritime community should be seen as the subject in the construction and promotion of maritime safety, not as just an object.

Nouvel échelon de régulation intermédiaire, le droit de l'Union européenne apparaît à la fois comme le produit et le catalyseur des mouvements de territorialisation et de régionalisation de la gouvernance des espaces et des activités maritimes. Les enjeux humains, économiques et environnementaux de la sécurité maritime ont fait de son ordre juridique un théâtre privilégié de la confrontation entre les traditions libérales du monde maritime et le besoin d'une régulation par la puissance publique en vue de prévenir, limiter et indemniser les préjudices de toutes natures pouvant résulter d'un accident. La Cour de justice de l'Union européenne a ainsi proposé les termes d'une réconciliation inédite entre les principes anciens régissant les régimes de responsabilité maritime tels qu'ils sont organisés par le droit international, et les principes nouveaux du droit de l'environnement. Sous l'effet de l'intégration européenne, le droit de la prévention s'harmonise progressivement à l'échelle continentale, limitant la compétition législative que les États membres sont susceptibles de se livrer dans l'exercice de l'autorité du pavillon et de l'autorité du port. Par la coordination de la position des États européens au sein des enceintes internationales, l'Union européenne parvient à influer sur l'orientation du droit international de la sécurité maritime, et à tempérer la compétition législative externe. Faute d'une harmonisation positive, le rapprochement du droit des États membres dans le domaine de la fiscalité et de la protection sociale des gens de mer naît pour l'heure d'un alignement sur les pratiques internationales. De même, alors que l'attractivité commerciale de son marché intérieur l'y autoriserait, le législateur européen a fait jusqu'à présent un usage limité des instruments d'incitation économique. L'intégration européenne a également conduit à la création d'un cadre de coopération régional structuré autour d'une Agence de régulation spécialisée, doublé d'un rapprochement organisationnel et fonctionnel des administrations maritimes nationales, dont il résulte une homogénéisation progressive des pratiques administratives, en particulier dans le domaine de la conduite des contrôles portuaires, de l'agrément des organismes agissant au nom et pour le compte de l'État du pavillon, de la reconnaissance des formations maritimes, etc. Cette coopération confère un rayonnement externe aux exigences européennes, dont la singularisation par rapport au droit international de référence demeure toutefois stratégiquement limitée. / As a new level of regulation, European Union law appears both as the product of and catalyst for territorialisation and regionalisation of the governance of maritime spaces and activities. The human, economicand environmental challenges of maritime safety have made its legal order a privileged scene for the confrontation between the liberal traditions of the maritime sectors and the need for regulation by the public authorities with a view to preventing, limiting and compensating damages of any kind that may result from an accident. The European Court of Justice has thus proposed the terms of an unprecedented reconciliation between the traditional principles governing maritime liability regimes as organised by international law on the one handand the new principles of environmental law on the other hand. As a result of European integration, maritime safety requirements are gradually harmonizing at theregional scale, limiting the legislative competition between EU Member States while acting as flag or port authorities. By coordinating the position of EU States in international forums, the European Union succeeds in orienting international law dealing with maritime safety: it thus contributes to temper external legislativecompetition. Without a positive harmonisation in the field of taxation and social protection of seafarers, the convergence of EU Member States law results from an alignment with international practices. Similarly, whereas the commercial attractiveness of its internal market would allow it, the European legislator has so far made limited use of economic incentives. European integration has also led to the creation of a regional cooperation framework built around a dedicated regulatory Agency, in addition to an organisational and functional rapprochement of the national maritime administrations, resulting in a gradual homogenisation of European administrative practices,particularly in the field of port controls, licensing of recognized organisations acting on behalf of the flag State,mutual recognition of maritime diplomas and certificates, etc. This co-operation gives extended application to European requirements, although their singularity in relation to international law remains strategically limited.