In the studies of men and masculinity, most of the focus has been on masculine dysfunction strain, or the strain males feel as it relates to the various expectations of masculinity. In contrast, the research on discrepancy strain (or the strain males feel when they fail to meet these expectations) is limited. Unlike dysfunction strain, there are not any widely accepted and utilized scales measuring discrepancy. By combining identity theory and general strain theory with gender and feminist theory, my goal is to examine how masculine discrepancy may be related to the endorsement of aggression and misogyny. The aim of this dissertation is to develop and validate a scale to operationalize masculine discrepancy as it is theorized; this scale will then be used to examine the following research questions: does masculine discrepancy impact males' individual endorsement of aggression and misogyny? And if so, are these impacts moderated by failure to meet particular aspects, or "pillars," of masculinity? I created a masculine discrepancy scale that more accurately operationalizes the theoretical concept of masculine discrepancy. First, I synthesized various masculinity scales, namely the Male Role Norms Inventory, the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory, and the Man Box scale to develop assessments of males' masculine ideals ("ideal") and perceptions of their lived experiences ("actual" or "experiences"). By comparing ideal to actual, we can calculate a discrepancy score, where a score of 0 indicates consistency, and scores further from 0 indicate discrepancy. These scores are calculated both as an overall assessment of discrepancy and by particular pillars of masculinity. Following a pilot study of undergraduate sociology students, 1,000 males above the age of 18 were surveyed. These surveys were conducted via Cint panel distribution in December 2023. I then use factor and cluster analysis as well as regression analyses to test the following hypotheses: (1) Masculine Discrepancy Stress will have a positive relationship with aggression and misogyny. (2) Higher endorsement of masculine ideals and lived experiences will be associated with higher levels of endorsement of aggression and misogyny when compared to lower endorsement of ideals and experiences. (3) Masculine Discrepancy, or the difference between idealized and lived masculine experiences, will be negatively correlated with aggression and misogyny. Individuals with positive discrepancies (lived experiences surpassing their masculine ideals) will exhibit lower levels of aggression and misogyny compared to those with negative discrepancies (masculine ideals surpassing lived experiences). (4) Certain masculine ideals and experiences will have stronger associations with aggression and misogyny than others. (5) Cluster analysis of ideals and experiences will reveal four groups of males: Norm-Favoring Consistents: High ideals, high experiences; Norm-Favoring Discrepants: High ideals, low experiences; Norm-Rejecting Consistents: Low ideals, low experiences; Norm-Rejecting Discrepants: Low ideals, high experiences. (6) These clusters will differ in their endorsement of aggression and misogyny. The Norm-Favoring Discrepants will exhibit the highest levels of aggression and misogyny, followed by the Norm-Favoring Consistents. The Norm-Rejecting Consistents will have lower levels than both of the Norm-Favoring groups, and the Norm-Rejecting Discrepants will have the lowest endorsement of aggression and misogyny. Hypotheses 1 through 4 were supported, while hypotheses 5 and 6 had limited support, as the two "Consistent" groups did not clearly differ as "norm-favoring" vs. "norm-rejecting." / Doctor of Philosophy / We currently live in an age where masculinity is the topic of much conversation. To one side, we have talking heads and political pundits decrying what they call "attacks on masculinity" or "attacks on men," and include suggestions like reading self-help books comparing humans to lobsters and tanning your testicles to regain lost masculinity. To the other side, we have self-professed "kings of toxic masculinity" who charge $8,000/year for a "PhD course" (the PhD standing for "Pimpin' Hoes Degree") being arrested for rape and human trafficking. Psychologists have found that having traditional masculine beliefs is associated with sexually aggressive and abusive behaviors and beliefs, coercion, dating violence, hostile sexism, hostility toward women, and self-reported violence and aggression. However, little research has been conducted on the outcomes men face when they fail to meet their own expectations of what they consider necessary to be "real men," perhaps partially due to the fact that there is no widely used scale measuring this concept of masculine discrepancy. In my dissertation, I create this type of scale in order to ask the question: when men fail to meet their own expectations concerning what it means to be a "real man," will they have higher rates of aggression and misogyny? And does it matter if men fail to meet one "pillar" of expectation (ex. being a playboy) compared to another "pillar" of expectation (ex. being in control of their emotions)? I explore this question by surveying 1,000 men about their views on what it means to be a "real man," and their actual experiences as it relates to "being a real man." I then run several statistical analyses to test my hypotheses regarding the amount of discrepancy and its relationship to the endorsement of aggression and misogyny. I find that the more a man worries about being seen as "manly," the more likely he is to endorse aggression and misogyny. Similarly, in many cases, the more a man endorses traditional masculine ideals and corresponding experiences, the more likely he is to endorse certain forms of aggression and misogyny. Additionally, I find that men who fail to live up to their own ideals in certain cases have higher endorsement of aggression and misogyny, while men whose experiences surpass their ideals have lower endorsement of aggression and misogyny. When creating groups of men based on discrepancy scores, I find that the group of men who failed to meet their ideals always, on average, had the highest endorsement of aggression and misogyny, while the group of men whose experiences were higher than their ideals also, on average, had the lowest endorsement of aggression and misogyny. One unexpected finding is that men seem to be rejecting the idea that men cannot express emotions or ask for help; I discuss the implications of this finding.

Following is a study of fathers 'experiences of balance between work and home life. The method the researchers used was based on qualitative interviews aimed at describing father’s own experiences and values, which affects them. The researchers chose to specifically study situations where the fathers were faced with situations where their children needed to be cared for in the home because of a cold or similar illness since this is a situation that directly affects the time that was meant for work, but now risk being moved to areas of life that the researchers define as home life. This is to see whether the respondents felt that this situation affected the balance between work- and home life. The result shows that there are many values of masculinity and fatherhood that influence the respondents when they create their identities. It is those values that come into conflict, as different roles floats into other areas of life, which results in an imbalance between work- and home life. This means that fathers experience distress as they try to compensate by working from home or at other times. It also creates a conflict in ideal gender-equal relationships in which men and women in theory, try to act on values of gender-equality but in practice, solve these situation based on traditional gender patterns.

The identity analysis of modern sociology claims that individuals, rather than presenting a “realistic”, or genuine picture of themselves, intends to highlight a desirable identity that is not rooted in its actual, current situation. Consequently, the individual opposes one identity and gives foreground to another which is in line with a specific image that intends to meet the norm of what it means to be a man, or a woman. Previous research shows how men tend to resign a victim role, because it goes against masculine ideals and thus refrains from seeking protection in the belief of not losing their masculinity. Thus, narratives are formed in which men tend to steer the impressions away from forced victimhood. What this study aims at, is to investigate hegemonic masculinity, and how it is expressed in connection with young men being exposed to crime and tactics of discrimination in pub-contexts. Through qualitative interviews with 5 informants, we have seen how young men relate to the role of victims of crime in a dissonance to their masculinity. And that it is possible to distinguish patterns of dominance and subordination between the “perpetrator” and the “victim”. What has been demonstrated is how hegemonic masculinity is reproduced in roles that do not evoke connotations of masculinity. The study also addresses the issue of men’s views on their own victimisation in shaping and reducing serious situations of violence. Which is derived in line with how hegemonic values are expressed. / Den moderna sociologins identitetsanalys hävdar att individer snarare än att presentera en realistisk, eller genuin bild av sig själv, ämnar framhäva en önskvärd identitet som inte är förankrad i dennes egentliga, aktuella situation. Följaktligen motsätter individen sig en identitet, och ger förgrund åt en annan som går i linje med en specifik bild som ämnar tillgodose normen av vad det innebär av att vara man, eller kvinna. Tidigare forskning påvisar hur män tenderar att avsäga sig en offerroll, då det går emot maskulina ideal och således avstå från att söka skydd i tro om att inte mista sin maskulinitet. Härvid bildas narrativ, i vilket män tenderar att styra intrycken bort från ett påtvingat offerskap. Vad denna studie syftar till är att undersöka hegemonisk maskulinitet, och hur det kommer till uttryck i samband med att unga män blivit utsatta för brott och taktiker av diskriminering i krogsammanhang. Genom kvalitativa intervjuer med 5 informanter har vi sett hur unga män förhåller sig till rollen som brottsoffer i en dissonans till sin maskulinitet, samt att det går att urskilja mönster av dominans och underordning förövaren och offret emellan. Det som således påvisats är hur hegemonisk maskulinitet reproduceras i roller som inte väcker konnotationer av maskulinitet. Studien tar också upp problematiken i mäns syn på sitt eget offerskap i gestaltandet och förminskandet av allvarliga våldssituationer. Vilket härleds i linje med hur hegemoniska värdegrunder tas i uttryck.

This study is about how bodybuilders in the 1960s are produced in the Swedish media image. The purpose of the study is to clarify how the male, muscular, body and identity is portrayed in the media image. Through an analysis of how daily- and evening newspapers reported, negotiated and linguistically produced bodybuilding and its practitioners, I hope to access these representations which together can be considered to form a specific discourse about bodybuilding. The language used by journalists, columnists, muscle bodybuilding and other people represented in the material formed the analogies, dichotomies and symbols that shape bodybuilding's identity in the 1960s. I have tried to show how the creation of meaning about bodybuilding and its practitioners construct the bodybuilder’s identity during the period in question as well as what the bodybuilder represented and what value the practitioner and his activities were attributed by and also how the gender norms can be distinguished from the actual material. I have chosen to call this period the legitimation phase of bodybuilding and by this I do not mean whether bodybuilders become an authorized representative of a masculine ideal, but rather the fact that through the media image of meaning negotiation he receives specific characteristics and cultural connotations that are maintained and renegotiated through language. Through the 1960s media image the bodybuilder is neither intelligent, beautiful and he has no soul, he also has feminine attributes and a passive muscularity. On the other hand, because of the positive qualities emphasized in his defense he is also handsome, intelligent, he has a soul and he has an active male body. This is also a part of his identity.