Following the success of the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh, Microfinance institutions (MFIs) which apply group-lending method through the medium of small credit have been regarded as a new and effective tools for poverty alleviation for the poor in many Less Developed Countries. This study analyses the role of two MFIs, namely KUKESRA, a government administered programme and Mitra Karya East Java (MKEJ) which is a privately managed institution in poverty alleviation in Indonesia. It examines to what extent these institutions have been successful in helping the poor, and improving the living standards of the recipients. Two alternative approaches, namely the institutionalist and the welfarist approaches, are used to examine the question of whether the poor benefited from the two programmes, followed by a comparison of the performances between the two. Using data obtained from a sample survey of 393 respondents in the District of Malang in East Java, from December 1998 - June 1999, it was found that the differences in management, organisational structure, programme design, and the system of coordination all resulted in differences in performance of the two MFI institutions studied. It was found that both programmes increased the incomes of the recipients, but the impact of KUKESRA was much lower than that of MKEJ. However, KUKESRA had a greater positive effect on employment than MKEJ. Neither of the programmes resulted in a significant improvement in the consumption of basic needs of the recipients. Of the two approaches used in the evaluation of the programmes, a good performance in terms of outreach and sustainability under the institutional approach did not imply that the poor really benefited from the programme. It was found that the welfarist approach is much more appropriate in evaluating the effectiveness of MFIs in Indonesia.

<p>Within the field of microfinance, there has been an ongoing debate about whether microfinance institutions should be commercialized. One side argues that a business that very much can earn profits at the same time as it helps the poor, is not justified to receive charity, but should be run with the risks and benefits of any other profit-seeking business.</p><p>The other side argues that the outreach to the ones who most need microfinance, is severely hampered if firms are profit-seeking; arguing that they only target the individuals who allow them to make profits.</p><p> </p><p>This study is a case study based on India, one of the world’s largest nations, and home to millions of people living below the poverty line[1]. Microfinance is widespread in India, and with one of the researchers speaking Hindi, India became our choice of case study. A grounded theory methodology is applied in order for us to learn as much as possible about the context of microfinance in India. Within the context, we look for the mission and the impact of the various institutions. Analysis is done through the constant comparison method; with comparisons within and between different organizations. Each organization is individually analyzed to find recurring themes, always being open to the emergence of new themes. Then, the organizations are compared with others of the same legal form, and finally with all other forms of organizations.</p><p> </p><p>Several different kinds of institutions are identified, working directly or indirectly with providing small loans to low-income individuals. These institutions include banks, local area banks, section 25 companies, NGOs, and cooperative societies. Each one of the institutions has, by law, different areas of restriction and the study finds that the missions of the various organizations can be linked to their legal form; the mission indicating which form they currently operate under or which legal form they are striving to achieve. The major difference between the various legal forms is their methods of accumulating finances, and how they manage their revenue. Although banks actually earn profits, they have not yet been fully commercialized, as they are restricted from attracting mainstream international capital.</p><p> </p><p>The conclusions indicate that in India, microfinance has not reached the point where it has been fully commercialized, but rather the passion for their work and visions of the founders very much guide the work of the various organizations. This can be seen in the missions that guide the organizations and the services provided to fulfill the mission. Commercialization is however, far from a non-issue. If legislation regarding IPOs is changed, the level of commercialization and competitive scene for microfinance in India could change dramatically.</p><p>[1] Can be measured in different ways, but used here symbolically, indicating a very low amount; discussed in more detail in the paper.</p>

<p>The subject of this paper is microfinance and the question: Do self-sustainable MFI:s alleviate poverty?.</p><p>A MFI is a micro financial institution, a regular bank or a NGO that has transformed into a licensed financial institutions, focused on microenterprises. To answer the question data has been gathered in Ecuador, South America. South America have a large amount of self sustainable MFI:s. Ecuador was selected as the country to be studied as it has an intermediate level of market penetration in the micro financial sector. To determine relative poverty before and after the access to microcredit, interviews were used. The data retrieved in the interviews was used to determine the impact of micro credit on different aspects of relative poverty using the Difference in Difference method.</p><p>Significant differences are found between old and new clients as well as for the change over time. But no significant results are found for the difference in change over time for clients compared to the non-clients. The author argues that the insignificant result can either be a result of a too small sample size, disturbances in the sample selection or that this specific kind of institution have little or no affect on the current clients economical development.</p>

Zeolites are a well-known class of crystalline oxide materials with tunable compositions and nanoporous structures, and have been used extensively in catalysis, adsorption, and ion exchange. The zeolite MFI is one of the well-studied zeolites because it has a pore size and structure suitable for separation or chemical conversion of many industrially important molecules. Modification of zeolite structures with organic groups offers a potential new way to change their properties of zeolites, beyond the manipulation of the zeolite framework structure and composition. The main goals of this thesis research are to study the organic-modification of the MFI pore structure, and to assess the effects of such modification on the adsorption and transport properties of zeolite MFI sorbents and membranes. In this work, the internal pore structure of MFI zeolite particles and membranes has been modified by direct covalent condensation or chemical complexation of different organic molecules with the silanol defect sites existing in the MFI structure. The organic molecules used for pore modification are 1-butanol, 1-hexanol, 3-amino-1-propanol, 1-propaneamine, 1,3-diaminopropane, 2-[(2-aminoethyl)amino]ethanol, and benzenemethanol. TGA/DSC and 13C/29Si NMR characterizations indicated that the functional groups were chemically bound to the zeolite framework, and that the loading was commensurate with the concentration of internal silanol defects. Gas adsorption isotherms of CO2, CH4, and N2 on the modified zeolite materials show a range of properties different from that of the bare MFI zeolite. The MFI/3-amino-1-propanol, MFI/2-[(2-aminoethyl)amino]ethanol, and MFI/benzenemethanol materials showed the largest differences from bare MFI. These properties were qualitatively explained by the known affinity of amino- and hydroxyl groups for CO2, and of the phenyl group for CH4. The combined influence of adsorption and diffusion changes due to modification can be studied by measuring permeation of different gases on modified MFI membranes. To study these effects, I synthesized MFI membranes with [h0h] out-of-plane orientation on α-alumina supports. The membranes were modified by the same procedures as used for MFI particles and with 1-butanol, 3-amino-1-propanol, 2-[(2-aminoethyl)amino]ethanol, and benzenemethanol. The existence of functional groups in the pores of the zeolite was confirmed by PA-FTIR measurements. Permeation measurements of H2, N2, CO2, CH4, and SF6, were performed at room temperature before and after modification. Permeation of n-butane, and i-butane were measured before and after modification with 1-butanol. For all of the studied gases, gas permeances decreased by 1-2 orders of magnitude compared to bare MFI membranes for modified membranes. This is a strong indication that the organic species in the MFI framework are interacting with or blocking the gas molecule transport through the MFI pores. A detailed fundamental study of the CO2 adsorption mechanism in modified zeolites is necessary to gain a better understating of the adsorption and permeation behavior of such materials. Towards this end, an in situ FTIR study was performe.For the organic molecules with only one functional group (1-butanol, benzenemethanol, and 1-propaneamine), physical adsorption was found - as intuitively expected - to be the only observed mode of attachment of CO2 to the modified zeolite material. Even in the case of MFI modified with 1,3-diaminopropane, only physical adsorption is seen. This is explained by the isolated nature of the amine groups in the material, due to which only a single amine group can interact with a CO2 molecule. On the other hand, chemisorbed CO2 species are clearly observed on bare MFI, and on MFI modified with 3-amino-1-propanol or 2-[(2-aminoethyl)amino]ethanol. Specifically, these are carbonate-like species that arise from the chemisorption of CO2 to the silanol group in bare MFI and the alcohol groups of the modifying molecule. The possibility of significant contributions from external surface silanol groups in adsorbing CO2 chemisorbed species was ruled out by a comparative examination of the FTIR spectra of 10 μm and 900 nm MFI particles modified with 2-[(2-aminoethyl)amino]ethanol.

Zeolites are crystalline inorganic solids that are industrially used for adsorption, ion exchange and catalysis. As catalysts, they have been particularly successful in the hydrocarbon processing industry due to their unique activities and selectivities. Zeolites are mainly used in acid catalyzed reactions, but their catalytic functionality can be diversified through the incorporation of elements that are traditionally not part of their framework. The incorporation of various elements has been studied in recent decades resulting in zeolites with potential to perform different chemistries or improve catalytic performance in existing ones. However, many of these investigations have been conducted under conditions that do not necessarily represent realistic scenarios for industrial implementation. The main objective of this dissertation was to study the single and simultaneous framework incorporation of tin, boron, germanium and aluminum in MFI zeolites under synthesis conditions that are more in line with industrial preparations. These include the use of mixtures in alkaline media with high concentration of precursor species. The interest on tin resides on its potential for Lewis acid catalysis, while boron and germanium have potential for modulating acid strength and enhancing catalytic properties respectively. Three specific systems were studied: MFI zeolites with simultaneous incorporation of germanium and aluminum (i.e. Ge-Al-MFI zeolites), MFI zeolites with simultaneous incorporation of germanium and boron (i.e. B-Ge-MFI zeolites), and MFI zeolites with single incorporation of tin (i.e. Sn-MFI zeolites). Systematic synthesis experiments were coupled with extensive analytical characterization in order to assess how element incorporation and zeolite physicochemical properties are affected by synthesis conditions. In addition, the catalytic activity of Sn-MFI zeolites for the hydroxylation of phenol was studied. The general conclusion from this work is that framework incorporation of these elements is highly influenced by pH, mixture composition and the presence of sodium cations. Sodium cations are commonly included in industrial preparations through the use of sodium hydroxide, but they were found to negatively affect framework incorporation due to a tendency to form stable extra-framework impurities with the heteroatoms, especially germanium and tin. pH and mixture composition are particularly influential in controlling germanium and boron incorporation, while the incorporation of tin, its coordination environment and catalytic performance were found to depend on synthesis conditions as well as post-synthesis treatments.

Zeolite membrane synthesis is conventionally carried out in batch systems. Recently, several attempts have been performed to synthesize zeolite membranes in flow systems which can allow preparation of membranes with large specific surface areas. Membranes synthesized in the recirculating flow system had comparable N2/SF6 and n- C4H10/i-C4H10 ideal selectivities with the membranes prepared in the batch system, indicating that good quality membranes can be produced by this method. The objective of this study is to separate organic/water mixtures by pervaporation by using MFI type membranes synthesized in the flow system. Effect of number of synthesis steps and synthesis method on the separation factor and flux was investigated. Membranes were synthesized from clear solutions with a molar composition of 80SiO2:16TPAOH:1536H2O at 95oC and atmospheric pressure. The synthesis solution was recirculated through the tubular alumina support with a flow rate of 6 ml/min for 72 h. The membranes were characterized by X-ray diffraction for phase identification and scanning electron microscopy for morphology determination. Single gas permeances of N2, H2, CH4, CO2, n-C4H10 and i-C4H10 were measured between 25 and 200oC. Mixtures of 5 wt% ethanol/water, 2-propanol/water and acetone/water were separated by pervaporation at different temperatures. The single gas permeances decreased with increasing temperature for weakly adsorbed gases. For n-C4H10 the permeance passed through a maximum and i-C4H10 permeance was nearly constant. For a membrane synthesized by two consecutive synthesis steps, the ideal selectivity for n-C4H10/i-C4H10 was 132 at 200oC. The selectivity in the pervaporation separation of ethanol-water mixture was 43 with a permeate flux of 0.2 kg/m2h at 25oC. With increasing temperature, selectivity decreased but the flux increased, the selectivity was 23 and the flux was 1.9 kg/m2h at 85oC. 2-propanol/water and acetone/water separation factors were 36 and 1024 with 0.2 and 0.1 kg/m2h fluxes, respectively. The separation factors and fluxes for membranes synthesized in the flow system were comparable with membranes synthesized in the batch system.

The subject of this paper is microfinance and the question: Do self-sustainable MFI:s alleviate poverty?. A MFI is a micro financial institution, a regular bank or a NGO that has transformed into a licensed financial institutions, focused on microenterprises. To answer the question data has been gathered in Ecuador, South America. South America have a large amount of self sustainable MFI:s. Ecuador was selected as the country to be studied as it has an intermediate level of market penetration in the micro financial sector. To determine relative poverty before and after the access to microcredit, interviews were used. The data retrieved in the interviews was used to determine the impact of micro credit on different aspects of relative poverty using the Difference in Difference method. Significant differences are found between old and new clients as well as for the change over time. But no significant results are found for the difference in change over time for clients compared to the non-clients. The author argues that the insignificant result can either be a result of a too small sample size, disturbances in the sample selection or that this specific kind of institution have little or no affect on the current clients economical development.

Within the field of microfinance, there has been an ongoing debate about whether microfinance institutions should be commercialized. One side argues that a business that very much can earn profits at the same time as it helps the poor, is not justified to receive charity, but should be run with the risks and benefits of any other profit-seeking business. The other side argues that the outreach to the ones who most need microfinance, is severely hampered if firms are profit-seeking; arguing that they only target the individuals who allow them to make profits.   This study is a case study based on India, one of the world’s largest nations, and home to millions of people living below the poverty line[1]. Microfinance is widespread in India, and with one of the researchers speaking Hindi, India became our choice of case study. A grounded theory methodology is applied in order for us to learn as much as possible about the context of microfinance in India. Within the context, we look for the mission and the impact of the various institutions. Analysis is done through the constant comparison method; with comparisons within and between different organizations. Each organization is individually analyzed to find recurring themes, always being open to the emergence of new themes. Then, the organizations are compared with others of the same legal form, and finally with all other forms of organizations.   Several different kinds of institutions are identified, working directly or indirectly with providing small loans to low-income individuals. These institutions include banks, local area banks, section 25 companies, NGOs, and cooperative societies. Each one of the institutions has, by law, different areas of restriction and the study finds that the missions of the various organizations can be linked to their legal form; the mission indicating which form they currently operate under or which legal form they are striving to achieve. The major difference between the various legal forms is their methods of accumulating finances, and how they manage their revenue. Although banks actually earn profits, they have not yet been fully commercialized, as they are restricted from attracting mainstream international capital.   The conclusions indicate that in India, microfinance has not reached the point where it has been fully commercialized, but rather the passion for their work and visions of the founders very much guide the work of the various organizations. This can be seen in the missions that guide the organizations and the services provided to fulfill the mission. Commercialization is however, far from a non-issue. If legislation regarding IPOs is changed, the level of commercialization and competitive scene for microfinance in India could change dramatically. [1] Can be measured in different ways, but used here symbolically, indicating a very low amount; discussed in more detail in the paper.

MFI type zeolites, are the most widely studied zeolites for membrane separations. Conventionally, zeolite membranes are prepared in batch systems by hydrothermal synthesis in autoclaves. This method has several disadvantages for use in industrial scale for the synthesis of membranes with large areas and complex geometries that are commonly used in membrane modules. The objective of this study is to prepare MFI type zeolite membranes on tubular alumina supports in a continuous system where the synthesis solution is circulated through the tubular supports. Syntheses were carried out using clear solutions, at atmospheric pressure and at temperatures below 100&deg / C. The membranes were characterized by N2, SF6, n-butane and isobutane permeances, X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy. A 2-&amp / #956 / m membrane was synthesized using the composition 80SiO2: 16TPAOH: 1536H2O at 95&deg / C in the continuous system. The membrane showed N2 permeance of 4.4 x 10-7 mol/m2.s.Pa and N2/SF6 selectivity of 11. The membrane synthesized in the batch system showed a N2 permeance of 3.4 x 10-7 mol/m2.s.Pa and a N2/SF6 selectivity of 27. Both membranes showed n-butane/isobutane mixture (50%-50%) selectivities of about 6 at temperatures of 150 and 200&deg / C. Among many zeolite membranes reported in literature, these membranes are one of the few zeolite membranes synthesized in a flow system and the first MFI type membranes synthesized in a continuous flow system with circulation of the synthesis solution. The permeances and selectivities of the membranes synthesized in the continuous system are comparable with the MFI type membranes synthesized in batch systems in literature.

The effect of seeding on the properties of alumina supported MFI membranes was investigated in this study. Membranes were synthesized from clear solutions with a molar batch composition of TPAOH:9.80SiO2:0.025NaOH:0.019Al2O3: 602.27H2O:39.16C2H5OH on bare and seeded alumina supports at 130oC in autoclaves. The amount of seed on the support surface was changed between 0.6 mg/cm2 and 6.9 mg/cm2 by vacuum seeding method, which provided uniform and closely packed seed layers. Membranes were characterized by XRD and SEM, and by measuring single gas permeances of N2, SF6, n-C4H10 and i-C4H10. The quality of membranes was evaluated on the basis of N2/SF6 ideal selectivity. Membranes, which showed N2/SF6 ideal selectivity higher than 40, were considered to be good quality, comprising few defects. Good quality membranes were also used to separate butane isomers. Membranes synthesized on seeded supports had compact and uniform MFI layer if the seed amount is less than 1.0 mg/cm2 on the support surface. Membranes that were synthesized on the supports coated with higher amount of seed crystals showed an asymmetric structure with a dense and uniform MFI layer at the top, the support at the bottom and a seed layer between. Half of the membranes synthesized on seeded supports had N2/SF6 ideal selectivity higher than 40. These membranes exhibited n-C4H10/i-C4H10 separation selectivities between 5 and 27 and 8 and 21 at room temperature and at 200oC, respectively. High ideal and separation selectivities showed that membranes did not include non-zeolitic pores. Membranes synthesized on bare support had non-uniform MFI layer. Those membranes showed N2/SF6 ideal selectivities below Knudsen selectivity, indicating the existence of large non-zeolitic pores in the MFI layer.