This research has assessed the environmental and economic sustainability of domestic micro-generation technologies under UK conditions as both individual technologies and as part of a range of future energy supply scenarios for the domestic sector extending to 2050. A life cycle approach has been used for both environmental and economic assessment considering the relevant sustainability impacts, which include global warming potential, the depletion of fossil fuels, human toxicity and life cycle cost. The micro-generation technologies studied were selected on the basis of their ability to contribute to current and future energy supply and also their suitability under UK conditions. These technologies were micro-wind, solar photovoltaics, micro-combined heat and power, heat pumps and solar thermal water heating. The technologies were compared with one another and with the incumbent technologies, which were grid electricity and natural gas condensing boilers. Three journal papers have been published as a result of this research. The evaluation of micro-generation technologies on a life cycle basis indicated that despite reducing certain environmental impacts, all technologies increased at least one and as many as eight environmental impacts compared to their current fossil-fuel alternatives. All micro-generation technologies would reduce global warming and fossil fuel depletion compared to conventional technologies, highlighting their potential to contribute to energy policy goals. However, they cannot currently compete with conventional technologies for capital cost, although their life cycle costs – taking into account incentives from schemes such as Feed-in Tariffs – can be competitive. Considering both environmental and economic implications suggested that Stirling engine micro-combined heat and power is one of the most sustainable options for heat and electricity generation. The results also suggested that heat pumps should not be receiving incentives from the Government due to their poor environmental performance. Four potential future energy supply scenarios for the UK domestic sector were studied extending to 2050. The scenarios varied in terms of the level of effort made to improve the environmental and economic sustainability of the sector. Scenario 1 involved no further implementation of micro-generation beyond 2009, increasing energy demand and a grid electricity dominated by fossil fuels. In contrast, Scenario 4 portrayed a future where there is 1 micro-generation technology per dwelling, a 50% reduction in demand and almost complete decarbonisation of the grid mix. The results indicated that a huge transformation of the sector is required to achieve the 80% reduction in CO2 emissions by 2050. This would include halving energy demand, almost complete decarbonisation of grid electricity and the installation of a micro-generation unit in every dwelling. To conclude, despite the level of interest micro-generation is currently receiving, this work suggested their usage may not necessarily be as beneficial as some believe. Their use does reduce greenhouse gas emissions and fossil fuel consumption; however, to have any influence on energy policy goals this use would have to be widespread. Furthermore, reduced emissions will come at the expense of other environmental impacts. Finally, with a number of the technologies not yet cost competitive – even with incentives – the Government focus on measures to reduce demand and decarbonise the grid may prove to be a better option as this work suggested that energy policy goals could be achieved without high penetration of micro-generation.

La combinaison de l'internet des objets et des nouvelles technologies liées à l'énergie transforme le paysage de l'énergie dans la maison. Les installations de micro générateurs, dominées par les panneaux solaires photovoltaïques, sont en constante progression. C'est une opportunité pour la création et l'altération des comportements énergétiques. Cependant, ces transformations créent également un nouveau challenge que l'on appelle le « différentiel énergétique » à l'échelle de la maison : la consommation et la génération d'électricité des ménages sont désynchronisées. En effet, la génération locale est majoritairement incontrôlable et dépendante des conditions météorologiques alors que la consommation des ménages à tendance à se concentrer en soirée. Cette thèse vise à comprendre et supporter les pratiques de déplacement des consommations émergentes dans les ménages équipés de panneaux solaires photovoltaïques. En particulier, nous observons « Comment les outils numériques peuvent-ils tirer parti des pratiques de déplacement des consommations dans le contexte de micro génération domestique ? ». Pour adresser cette question nous avons combiné des approches empiriques et d'ingénierie, se renforçant et s'informant mutuellement les unes et les autres pour fournir une solution générale. Cela inclut la collection de données qualitatives et quantitatives, des analyses en collaboration avec les participants, des études longitudinales, des interviews, du co-design, des simulations et des tests en condition réelles. Tout au long de cette thèse, nous avons utilisé une méthodologie centrée sur l'utilisateur à chaque étape pour informer et valider la recherche en collaboration avec 38 ménages. A travers une investigation approfondi des routines telles que faire la lessive et se déplacer en voiture électrique, nous soulignons l'engagement naturel des ménages pour le déplacement des consommations. Cependant, cette activité se révèle complexe et fastidieuse. Nous révélons cette complexité à l'aide d'une analyse de donnée participative, une méthode élaborée afin d'analyser les données en collaboration avec les participants. Nous construisons une compréhension détaillée de la relation entre la génération d'électricité domestique et les routines du quotidien. Enfin, nous soulignons le besoin d'un support contextuel à travers le déploiement d'interventions sur le terrain. En perspective de la littérature, nous proposons un modèle conceptuel pour le support interactif de déplacement des consommations. / The combination of ubiquitous computing and emerging energy technologies is radically changing the home energy landscape. Domestic micro-generation, dominated by solar photovoltaic, is increasing at a rapid pace. This represents an opportunity for creating and altering energy behaviours. However, these transformations generate new challenges that we call the domestic energy gap: domestic electricity consumption and micro-generation are out of sync. Micro-generation is mainly uncontrollable production relying on weather while domestic energy consumption tends to happen mostly during the evening. This thesis focuses on understanding and supporting new domestic practices in the context of domestic solar electricity generation, looking at ‘Demand-Shifting’. Specifically, we look at how can digital tools leverage Demand-Shifting practices in the context of domestic micro-generation? Relying on a mixed-method approach, we provide a qualitative and quantitative answer with the collaboration of 38 participating households in several field studies including two spanning more than eight months. Through a deep investigation of laundry and electric mobility routines in the context of domestic micro-generation, we emphasised a natural engagement into Demand-Shifting which appeared as a complex and time-consuming task for participants which was not visible when we analysed their quantitative data. We revealed this complexity through Participatory Data Analyses, a method we designed to analyse the data in collaboration with the participating householders. This provided us with a comprehensive view of the relationship between domestic micro-generation and daily routines. Finally, we highlight the need for timely and contextual support through the deployment of interventions in-the-wild. Building on discussions of our findings in perspective of the literature, we propose a conceptual framework to support domestic interactive Demand-Shifting (iDS).

A busca por fontes de energia é algo inerente à história da sociedade. O impacto da revolução industrial e a evolução da produção manufaturada, forçaram a um crescimento do uso dos combustíveis fósseis. Crises do petróleo, crescimento populacional, tratados ambientais e o reconhecimento da influência das atividades humanas nos fenômenos de mudanças climáticas levaram ao aprofundamento das pesquisas e aplicações em Energias Renováveis e fontes menos poluentes. Dentre essas diversas pesquisas destaca-se o desenvolvimento de células eletroquímicas, que em muitas vezes, estão relacionadas à problemas de poluição ambiental. Células eletroquímicas são dispositivos capazes de gerar e acumular energia através de reações químicas e bioquímicas. Estudos nessa área são importantes, visto que muitas vezes existem dúvidas de ordem técnica para suas aplicações no design de produtos eletroeletrônicos, que buscam reduzir seu impacto, principalmente, no descarte final. Neste sentido, a presente pesquisa buscou contribuir com dados técnico-científicos orientadores para a geração da microenergia, a partir da utilização de materiais naturais para fabricação da célula bioquímica. Diante desse objetivo, foram selecionados materiais naturais dentre um conjunto de folhas de espécies comuns no estado do Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil, com possível potencial para atuarem como eletrólito na microgeração de energia de corrente contínua. Após os ensaios de caracterização, foram montados sistemas de células eletroquímicas composta por eletrodos de Cobre e Zinco e os materiais selecionados como eletrólito. Os resultados apontaram que as folhas de limão, de bergamota, e de laranja apresentam um potencial para geração de energia. Com base na pesquisa, verificou-se que existem boas possibilidades para microgeração de energia utilizando eletrólitos com matérias naturais. / The search for energy sources is something inherent in the history of society. The impact of the industrial revolution and the evolution of manufactured production forced the use of fossil fuels to grow. Oil crises, population growth, environmental treaties and the recognition of the influence of human activities on the phenomena of climate change have led to the deepening of research and applications in Renewable Energies and less polluting sources. Among these several types of research the development of electrochemical cells, which in many cases, are related to the problems of environmental pollution, stands out. Electrochemical cells are devices capable of generating and accumulating energy through chemical and biochemical reactions. Studies in this area are important since there are often technical doubts for their applications in the design of electrical and electronic products, which seek to reduce their impact, mainly in the final disposal. In this sense, the present research sought to contribute to technical-scientific data guiding for the generation of micro-energy, from the use of natural materials to manufacture the biochemical cell. In view of this objective, natural materials were selected from a set of leaves of common species in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, with a potential to act as an electrolyte in the micro energy generation of direct current. After the characterization tests, electrochemical cell systems composed of Copper and Zinc electrodes and the materials selected as electrolyte were assembled. The results indicated that lemon, bergamot, and orange leaves have a potential for energy generation. Based on the research, it was verified that there are good possibilities for microgeneration of energy using electrolytes with natural materials.

Master of Landscape Architecture / Department of Landscape Architecture/Regional and Community Planning / Mary C. Kingery-Page / Rural Kansas communities are almost entirely dependent on large energy corporations. These corporations, in turn, are almost completely dependent on fossil fuels for energy production. Three major implications exist within these dependencies: 1) the dependence of rural communities on large corporations reduces the potential of a local economy to support itself; 2) the dependence on fossil fuels has severe environmental impacts; and 3) fossil fuels are non-renewable resources and will inevitably be exhausted. A rural Kansas community has resources necessary to achieve and maintain energy independence in a renewable manner. The design of these systems in regard to economy, society, aesthetics, technology, and ecology will play a key role in sustaining these resources into the future. The intent of the project is to create a tool for rural communities to evaluate localized renewable energy potential using Washington, Kansas as an example. Several questions were addressed to determine the capacity and feasibility of each local energy resource: What renewable energy resources are available to a rural Kansas community and are they sufficient for the community to achieve energy independence? How can the resource or its production be designed and maintained in regard to its environmental impact and long-term viability? What are the implications of energy independence for the community’s identity? Because each question is dependent upon the answer to a previous question, a decision tree was the most viable method for the project’s analysis and development. Research into the technology and science associated with each resource provided a general knowledge of the definitions associated with and processes necessary to determine the feasibility of the resource. For resources receiving a positive feasibility rating, analysis continued with a basic cost/benefit analysis that compares potential costs involving implementation and maintenance with the payback, offsets, and incentives involved in utilizing each resource. Analysis of each feasible resource continued with site suitability analysis. The analysis of each resource resulted in resource maps showing potential implementation locations for three renewable resources studied: hydro, wind, and solar. The maps and accompanying graphics communicate the integration of renewable energy technologies into the existing community’s identity.

Esta dissertação propõe um projeto de aerogerador que é composto de uma turbina eólica de cinco pás, acoplada a um difusor e um gerador elétrico, com a finalidade de gerar energia elétrica com ventos de velocidade a partir de 4 m/s. São apresentados os pressupostos teóricos referentes ao estudo e dimensionamento aerodinâmico de uma pá, baseados principalmente na teoria do disco atuador e na teoria aerodinâmica, através do método de Betz. É feito o estudo de um difusor para ser acoplado à turbina com o objetivo de aumentar o aproveitamento energético. No final foram estudadas as principais topologias utilizadas para a geração eólica e é selecionado o gerador síncrono de ímãs permanentes. A seguir foram estudadas e dimensionadas as partes ativas do gerador (diretamente envolvidas na conversão eletromagnética). É projetado um aerogerador trifásico com enrolamentos distribuídos. O rotor, que é acoplado às pás, localiza-se internamente. Os ímãs permanentes de Neodímio-Boro-Ferro são montados na superfície do rotor. Conclui-se com a avaliação do aerogerador proposto com base nas simulações computacionais de seu desempenho. / This thesis proposes a wind generator design which combines a five blade wind turbine that is attached to a diffuser and an electrical generator. The design aims to produce electric power from 4 m/s starting wind speeds. It presents the theoretical study concerning the design and aerodynamics of a blade, commonly based on the theory of actuator disc and aerodynamic theory, through the method of Betz. A study was conducted on a diffuser to be coupled to the turbine in order to increase the energy utilization. In the end, the main topologies used for wind generation were presented, and the permanent magnet synchronous generator was selected. Next, all the active parts of the generator (directly involved in electromagnetic conversion) were studied and determined. An outer stator with three-phase distributed windings was designed. The rotor, which is coupled to the blades, is located internally. The Neodymium-Iron-Boron permanent magnets are mounted on the rotor surface. It is concluded with an evaluation of the proposed wind generator in accordance with its behavior computational simulations.

Esta dissertação propõe um projeto de aerogerador que é composto de uma turbina eólica de cinco pás, acoplada a um difusor e um gerador elétrico, com a finalidade de gerar energia elétrica com ventos de velocidade a partir de 4 m/s. São apresentados os pressupostos teóricos referentes ao estudo e dimensionamento aerodinâmico de uma pá, baseados principalmente na teoria do disco atuador e na teoria aerodinâmica, através do método de Betz. É feito o estudo de um difusor para ser acoplado à turbina com o objetivo de aumentar o aproveitamento energético. No final foram estudadas as principais topologias utilizadas para a geração eólica e é selecionado o gerador síncrono de ímãs permanentes. A seguir foram estudadas e dimensionadas as partes ativas do gerador (diretamente envolvidas na conversão eletromagnética). É projetado um aerogerador trifásico com enrolamentos distribuídos. O rotor, que é acoplado às pás, localiza-se internamente. Os ímãs permanentes de Neodímio-Boro-Ferro são montados na superfície do rotor. Conclui-se com a avaliação do aerogerador proposto com base nas simulações computacionais de seu desempenho. / This thesis proposes a wind generator design which combines a five blade wind turbine that is attached to a diffuser and an electrical generator. The design aims to produce electric power from 4 m/s starting wind speeds. It presents the theoretical study concerning the design and aerodynamics of a blade, commonly based on the theory of actuator disc and aerodynamic theory, through the method of Betz. A study was conducted on a diffuser to be coupled to the turbine in order to increase the energy utilization. In the end, the main topologies used for wind generation were presented, and the permanent magnet synchronous generator was selected. Next, all the active parts of the generator (directly involved in electromagnetic conversion) were studied and determined. An outer stator with three-phase distributed windings was designed. The rotor, which is coupled to the blades, is located internally. The Neodymium-Iron-Boron permanent magnets are mounted on the rotor surface. It is concluded with an evaluation of the proposed wind generator in accordance with its behavior computational simulations.

Esta dissertação propõe um projeto de aerogerador que é composto de uma turbina eólica de cinco pás, acoplada a um difusor e um gerador elétrico, com a finalidade de gerar energia elétrica com ventos de velocidade a partir de 4 m/s. São apresentados os pressupostos teóricos referentes ao estudo e dimensionamento aerodinâmico de uma pá, baseados principalmente na teoria do disco atuador e na teoria aerodinâmica, através do método de Betz. É feito o estudo de um difusor para ser acoplado à turbina com o objetivo de aumentar o aproveitamento energético. No final foram estudadas as principais topologias utilizadas para a geração eólica e é selecionado o gerador síncrono de ímãs permanentes. A seguir foram estudadas e dimensionadas as partes ativas do gerador (diretamente envolvidas na conversão eletromagnética). É projetado um aerogerador trifásico com enrolamentos distribuídos. O rotor, que é acoplado às pás, localiza-se internamente. Os ímãs permanentes de Neodímio-Boro-Ferro são montados na superfície do rotor. Conclui-se com a avaliação do aerogerador proposto com base nas simulações computacionais de seu desempenho. / This thesis proposes a wind generator design which combines a five blade wind turbine that is attached to a diffuser and an electrical generator. The design aims to produce electric power from 4 m/s starting wind speeds. It presents the theoretical study concerning the design and aerodynamics of a blade, commonly based on the theory of actuator disc and aerodynamic theory, through the method of Betz. A study was conducted on a diffuser to be coupled to the turbine in order to increase the energy utilization. In the end, the main topologies used for wind generation were presented, and the permanent magnet synchronous generator was selected. Next, all the active parts of the generator (directly involved in electromagnetic conversion) were studied and determined. An outer stator with three-phase distributed windings was designed. The rotor, which is coupled to the blades, is located internally. The Neodymium-Iron-Boron permanent magnets are mounted on the rotor surface. It is concluded with an evaluation of the proposed wind generator in accordance with its behavior computational simulations.

Small wind turbines, and especially urban-mounted turbines which require no dedicated pole, have garnered great public enthusiasm in recent years. This enthusiasm has fueled widespread growth among energy conservationists, and estimates predict that the power produced nationally by small wind will increase thirty-fold by 2013. Unfortunately, most of the wind resources currently available have been designed for larger, rural-mounted turbines; thus, they are not well suited for this nascent market. A consequence of this is that many potential urban small wind turbine owners over-predict their local wind resource, which is both costly and inefficient. According to a recent study published by Encraft Ltd., small wind turbines mounted to buildings far underperformed their rural pole mounted counterparts. As a proposed solution to this problem, this project introduces the concept of a Web-based Wind Assessment System (WWAS). This system combines all the necessary resources for potential urban small wind turbine customers into a single web-based tool. The system also presents the concept of a modular wind measurement system, which couples with the WWAS to provide real-time wind data measurements. The benefits of the system include its ease of use, flexibility of installation, data accessibility from any web browser, and expert advice. The WWAS prevents potential clients from investing in a system that may not be viable for their location. In addition, a small wind turbine is designed in this project, which has a unique modular mounting system, allowing the same baseline wind turbine to attach to various structures using interchangeable mounting hardware. This includes such accessible urban structures as street lights, building corners, flag poles, and building walls, among others. This design also utilizes concepts that address some of the challenges associated with mounting small wind turbines to existing urban structures. These concepts include: swept tip blades and lower RPM to reduce noise; vibration suppression using rubber shims; a netted duct to protect wildlife; and a direct-drive permanent magnet generator to ensure low starting torque. Finally, the cost of this system is calculated using off-the-shelf components, which minimize testing and certification expense. This small wind turbine system is designed to be grid-connected, has a 6 foot diameter rotor, and is rated at 1 kW. This design features a unique modular interchangeable mounting system. The cost for this complete system is estimated to be $2,050. If a users' site has an average wind speed of 14 mph (6.5 m/s), this system will generate a return on investment in 8.5 years, leaving over 10 years of profit. The profit for this system, at this sample average wind speed, yields over $4,000 during its 20-year design life, which is a two-fold return on investment. This project has implications for various stakeholders in the small wind turbine market, including designers, engineers, manufacturers, and potential customers. Equally important is its potential role in guiding our future national--even global--energy agenda.