No presente trabalho são descritos métodos versáteis para determinações simultâneas multicomponentes. Estes são baseados num sistema de detecção multicanal acoplado a célula em fluxo contendo um conjunto de microeletrodos modificados. O primeiro método mostra a quantificação amperométrica em fluxo de ácido ascórbico (AA), dopamina (DA), epinefrina (EP) e dipirona (DI) em misturas (na faixa de &#181;g g-1). Neste trabalho foi utilizado um conjunto de microeletrodos de ouro limpos e modificados, independentemente, com diferentes metais nobres (Pt, Pd e uma mistura equimolar de Pd e Pt), associados com métodos de calibração multivariada. As análises de amostras sintéticas e formulações farmacêuticas contendo AA e DI apresentaram valores muito similares aos encontrados com a iodometria clássica. O método apresentou um erro médio absoluto (em &#181;g g-1) de 0,3, 0,1, 0,4 e 0,3 para AA, DA, EP e DI, respectivamente, para a regressão linear múltipla e 0,3, 0,4, 0,4 e 0,2 para AA, DA, EP e DI, respectivamente, para a regressão por mínimos quadrados parciais. O segundo trabalho apresenta um método para determinação amperométrica diferencial de peróxido de hidrogênio em águas de chuvas em associação com análise por injeção em fluxo e imobilização de catalase em reator tubular usando glutaraldeído e resina amberlite IRA - 743 como suporte. A curva de calibração para o peróxido de hidrogênio foi linear na faixa de concentração de 1 a 10 x 10-6 mol L-1 com um desvio relativo padrão (RSD) < 1%. O limite de detecção do método foi calculado em 2,9 x 10-7 mol L-1. As análises de águas de chuvas foram comparadas com amperometria usando microeletrodo de mercúrio e espectrofotometria, sendo que os resultados mostraram uma boa correlação. O terceiro método descreve a determinação amperométrica simultânea em fluxo de glicose e ácido úrico, usando dois microeletrodos com diferentes composições (Pt e Pt+glicose oxidase+acetato de celulose) e detecção multicanal. A curva de calibração para a glicose foi linear na faixa de concentração de 1 a 10 x 10-4 mol L-1 com um desvio relativo padrão (RSD) < 1%. O limite de detecção do método foi calculado em 5 x 10-5 mol L-1. As análises de amostras sintéticas foram comparadas com o método espectrofotométrico, mostrando uma boa concordância entre os resultados obtidos. / In the present work, versatile methods for simultaneous amperometric multicomponent analysis are described. They are based on a multi-channel detection system, coupled to a flow cell containing an array of modified microelectrodes. The first method shows the flow injection amperometric quantification of ascorbic acid (AA), dopamine (DA), epinephrine (EP) and dipyrone (DI) in mixtures (in the &#181;g g-1 range). This work was successfully performed by using an array of microelectrodes bare and with units modified by the electrodeposition of different noble metals (platinum, palladium or a mixture of platinum+palladium), together with multivariate calibration analysis. The analysis of synthetic samples and pharmaceutical compounds containing AA and DI led to very similar values to those obtained by the classical iodometric analysis. The average absolute errors (in &#181;g g-1) calculated for each analyte were 0.3, 0.1, 0.4 and 0.3 for AA, DA, EP and DI, respectively, for multiple linear regression and 0.3, 0.4, 0.4 e 0.2 for AA, DA, EP and DI , respectively, for partial least square regression. The second study presents a method for differential amperometric determination of hydrogen peroxide in rainwater in association with flow injection analysis and immobilized catalase enzymes in a tubular reactor using glutaraldeyde and amberlite IRA - 743 which support. The calibration curves for hydrogen peroxide standards was linear in the concentration range from 1 to 10 x 10-6 mol L-1 with a relative standard deviation (RSD) < 1 %. The detection limit was calculated as 2.9 x 10-7 mol L-1. The rainwater samples analyses where compared with the amperometric using mercury microelectrode and spectrophotometric methods, showing very good correlation between all the methods. The third method describes the flow injection amperometric determination of glucose and uric acid simultaneously, using two microelectrodes with different composition (platinum and platinum+glucose oxidase+cellulose acetate) and a multi-channel detection system. The calibration curves for glucose standards was linear in the concentration range from 1 to 10 x 10-4 mol L-1 with a relative standard deviation (RSD) < 1 %. The detection limit was calculated as 5 x 10-5 mol L-1. The analyses of synthetic samples were compared with the spectrophotometric method, showing very good correlation between the methods.

Um dos principais problemas no emprego do biodiesel como combustível de automóveis é a corrosão que ele pode provocar nos motores, devido à facilidade com que pode degradar. A natureza corrosiva do biodiesel é relacionada com a presença de água, ácidos graxos livres, ions metálicos, impurezas, a incidência da luz, a temperatura e a presença de insaturações na cadeia de alquil ésteres. Na atualidade existem poucos trabalhos na literatura sobre a corrosão dos metais em contato com biodiesel e a maioria deles têm um enfoque mais qualitativo que quantitativo. O maior desafio para avaliar a corrosividade do biodiesel mediante técnicas eletroquímicas é sua baixa condutividade. A espectroscopia de impedância eletroquímica (EIE) é uma técnica sensível que tem sido empregada para estudar meios resistivos como o etanol, por muitos anos. No entanto, os experimentos são difíceis assim como a análise dos resultados, principalmente pelo desenvolvimento da queda ôhmica no meio, devido à alta resistividade do meio ao fluxo da corrente elétrica. Os microeletrodos têm sido empregados em várias pesquisas em eletroquímica e têm apresentado algumas vantagens com respeito aos eletrodos de tamanhos convencionais. O principal benefício é a redução da queda ôhmica em meios resistivos, devido às baixas correntes registradas. No presente trabalho foi avaliada a corrosão do cobre e do aço inoxidável, os quais se encontram presentes no circuito de combustível dos motores, quando entram em contato com o biodiesel obtido a partir do óleo de soja (B100) e etanol. A avaliação foi feita mediante técnicas eletroquímicas com auxilio dos microeletrodos clássicos e na forma de arranjos (de 25 m de diâmetro), sem adição de eletrólito suporte. Adicionalmente, os resultados foram correlacionados com as mudanças nas propriedades fisicoquímicas do biodiesel (viscosidade, teor de água, teor de acidez e estabilidade oxidativa) e com ensaios gravimétricos segundo a norma ASTM G31. Os ensaios de impedância eletroquímica com os microeletrodos clássicos e os arranjos de microeletrodos mostraram duas constantes de tempo e foi possível demostrar que a constante em altas frequências está relacionada com a qualidade do biodiesel, enquanto que a constante nas baixas frequências é uma resposta da interface metal-biodiesel. A viscosidade e o teor de umidade aumentaram com a degradação do biodiesel e a estabilidade oxidativa diminuiu na mesma proporção independentemente do metal que estava em contato com o biocombustível. A presença de defeitos nos arranjos de microeletrodos obtidos por fotolitografia é um problema importante e é preciso estar sempre atento para evitar resultados equivocados. A voltametria cíclica se mostrou como técnica quantitativa para caracterizar e controlar a área exposta dos microeletrodos simples e em arranjos. Finalmente se corroborou com os ensaios eletroquímicos, a maior velocidade de corrosão para o cobre obtida nos ensaios gravimétricos, comparada à do aço inoxidável. / One of the most relevant aspects related with the use of biodiesel in automobile motors is its corrosivity, due to its susceptibility to oxidation reactions. The corrosive nature of biodiesel is related with the presence of water, free fatty acids, metallic ions, impurities, incidence of light, temperature, as well as the insaturation degree of the main chain of the alkyl esters. Currently there are few works in literature about corrosion of metals in contact with biodiesel, and most of them have more a qualitative than a quantitative focus. The main issue for electrochemical studies in biodiesel is its low conductivity. Electrochemistry impedance spectroscopy (EIS) is a sensitive technique that has been used for studying resistive media like ethanol for many years. However the experiments are difficult and the results are complex to understand, mainly because of the ohmic drop developed in this media due to the inherent solution resistance to the flow of electrical current. Microelectrodes have been used in many researches in electrochemistry showing some advantages with respect to conventional electrodes. The principal benefit is the reduction of the ohmic drop in resistive media, due to its negligible value when small currents are registered. In this work corrosiveness of copper and stainless steel which are present in fuel circuit of an automobile motor was evaluated when they come in contact with biodiesel, obtained from soybean oil and ethanol (B100). The evaluation was made using classic microelectrodes and arrays of microelectrodes (25m diameter) without addition of supporting electrolyte. Aditionally the results were correlated with the changes in biodiesel physicochemical properties (viscosity, water content, acid number and oxidation stability) and weight loss tests according to ASTM G31. The electrochemical results with classic microeletrodes and arrays of microelectrodes showed two time constants and it was demonstrated that the time constant at high frequencies is related with biodiesel quality, while the time constant at low frequencies is due to the response of metal-biodiesel interface. The viscosity and water content increased with biodiesel degradation and oxidation stability decrease in the same proportion independently of the metal in contact with biofuel. The presence of defects in the microelectrodes arrays obtained by photolitography is an important issue and the researcher must be atempt to them to avoid equivocated results. Cyclic voltammetry has shown to be a useful technique to characterize and control the exposed are in microlectrodes and their arrays. Finally, the electrochemical measurements corroborate the higher corrosion rate for copper obtained from weight loss tests compaired to corrosion rate for stainless steel.

No presente trabalho são descritos métodos versáteis para determinações simultâneas multicomponentes. Estes são baseados num sistema de detecção multicanal acoplado a célula em fluxo contendo um conjunto de microeletrodos modificados. O primeiro método mostra a quantificação amperométrica em fluxo de ácido ascórbico (AA), dopamina (DA), epinefrina (EP) e dipirona (DI) em misturas (na faixa de &#181;g g-1). Neste trabalho foi utilizado um conjunto de microeletrodos de ouro limpos e modificados, independentemente, com diferentes metais nobres (Pt, Pd e uma mistura equimolar de Pd e Pt), associados com métodos de calibração multivariada. As análises de amostras sintéticas e formulações farmacêuticas contendo AA e DI apresentaram valores muito similares aos encontrados com a iodometria clássica. O método apresentou um erro médio absoluto (em &#181;g g-1) de 0,3, 0,1, 0,4 e 0,3 para AA, DA, EP e DI, respectivamente, para a regressão linear múltipla e 0,3, 0,4, 0,4 e 0,2 para AA, DA, EP e DI, respectivamente, para a regressão por mínimos quadrados parciais. O segundo trabalho apresenta um método para determinação amperométrica diferencial de peróxido de hidrogênio em águas de chuvas em associação com análise por injeção em fluxo e imobilização de catalase em reator tubular usando glutaraldeído e resina amberlite IRA - 743 como suporte. A curva de calibração para o peróxido de hidrogênio foi linear na faixa de concentração de 1 a 10 x 10-6 mol L-1 com um desvio relativo padrão (RSD) < 1%. O limite de detecção do método foi calculado em 2,9 x 10-7 mol L-1. As análises de águas de chuvas foram comparadas com amperometria usando microeletrodo de mercúrio e espectrofotometria, sendo que os resultados mostraram uma boa correlação. O terceiro método descreve a determinação amperométrica simultânea em fluxo de glicose e ácido úrico, usando dois microeletrodos com diferentes composições (Pt e Pt+glicose oxidase+acetato de celulose) e detecção multicanal. A curva de calibração para a glicose foi linear na faixa de concentração de 1 a 10 x 10-4 mol L-1 com um desvio relativo padrão (RSD) < 1%. O limite de detecção do método foi calculado em 5 x 10-5 mol L-1. As análises de amostras sintéticas foram comparadas com o método espectrofotométrico, mostrando uma boa concordância entre os resultados obtidos. / In the present work, versatile methods for simultaneous amperometric multicomponent analysis are described. They are based on a multi-channel detection system, coupled to a flow cell containing an array of modified microelectrodes. The first method shows the flow injection amperometric quantification of ascorbic acid (AA), dopamine (DA), epinephrine (EP) and dipyrone (DI) in mixtures (in the &#181;g g-1 range). This work was successfully performed by using an array of microelectrodes bare and with units modified by the electrodeposition of different noble metals (platinum, palladium or a mixture of platinum+palladium), together with multivariate calibration analysis. The analysis of synthetic samples and pharmaceutical compounds containing AA and DI led to very similar values to those obtained by the classical iodometric analysis. The average absolute errors (in &#181;g g-1) calculated for each analyte were 0.3, 0.1, 0.4 and 0.3 for AA, DA, EP and DI, respectively, for multiple linear regression and 0.3, 0.4, 0.4 e 0.2 for AA, DA, EP and DI , respectively, for partial least square regression. The second study presents a method for differential amperometric determination of hydrogen peroxide in rainwater in association with flow injection analysis and immobilized catalase enzymes in a tubular reactor using glutaraldeyde and amberlite IRA - 743 which support. The calibration curves for hydrogen peroxide standards was linear in the concentration range from 1 to 10 x 10-6 mol L-1 with a relative standard deviation (RSD) < 1 %. The detection limit was calculated as 2.9 x 10-7 mol L-1. The rainwater samples analyses where compared with the amperometric using mercury microelectrode and spectrophotometric methods, showing very good correlation between all the methods. The third method describes the flow injection amperometric determination of glucose and uric acid simultaneously, using two microelectrodes with different composition (platinum and platinum+glucose oxidase+cellulose acetate) and a multi-channel detection system. The calibration curves for glucose standards was linear in the concentration range from 1 to 10 x 10-4 mol L-1 with a relative standard deviation (RSD) < 1 %. The detection limit was calculated as 5 x 10-5 mol L-1. The analyses of synthetic samples were compared with the spectrophotometric method, showing very good correlation between the methods.

<p>Conjugated polymers that exhibit high electronic conductivities play key roles in the emerging field of molecular electronics. In particular, linking metal centres with useful electrochemical, photophysical, or catalytic properties to the backbone, or within the polymer chain itself, is a topic which has attracted a significant amount of interest lately. Structurally rigid monomers that can be electropolymerised to form highly conducting molecular wires may provide new insights into conduction mechanisms, e.g., exploiting resonant superexchange (electron-hopping) by tuning the energies of redox centre and bridge states. The focus of this thesis lies on the electrochemical investigation of preparation, growth dynamics, and charge transport dynamics of oligothiophene/transition metal hybrid materials. The incorporation of ruthenium(II) and osmium(II) terpyridine complexes into such polymeric assemblies was accomplished by an electropolymerisation procedure, to produce rod-like oligothienyl-bridged metallopolymers. The properties of the monomers used were characterised by optical spectroscopy and electrochemical techniques. Charge transport was studied in detail for some of the materials created, and it was found that the electron transport rate and dc conductivity was enhanced by up to two orders of magnitude compared to relevant non-conjugated polymers, demonstrating the usefulness of this approach for optimization of charge transport in metallopolymers. The charge transport diffusion coefficent was determined to (2.6 ± 0.5) x 10^-6 cm² s^-1 for a quaterthienyl-bridged {Os(tpy)₂} polymer by use of an electrochemical steady-state method carried out using a transistor-like experimental geometry. It was found that charge transport in these materials is concentration-gradient driven. The rate limiting step of the charge transport process was investigated using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. The electropolymerisation dynamics of one of the monomers was studied using microelectrodes, and the results obtained shows that electropolymerisation is highly efficient, and indicate that mass transport controls this process. Through a combination of controlled potential deposition and SEM imaging it was demonstrated that it is possible to exploit the edge effect of microelectrodes to promote film growth in a direction co-planar with the electrode surface.</p>

This work presents detailed numerical calculations of the dielectrophoretic force in octupolar traps designed for single-cell trapping. A trap with eight planar electrodes is studied for spherical and ellipsoidal particles using an indirect implementation of the boundary element method (BEM). Multipolar approximations of orders one to three are compared with the full Maxwell stress tensor (MST) calculation of the electrical force on spherical particles. Ellipsoidal particles are also studied, but in their case only the dipolar approximation is available for comparison with the MST solution. The results show that the full MST calculation is only required in the study of non-spherical particles. / Singapore-MIT Alliance (SMA)

This thesis is concerned with kinetic characterisation of theinsertion compound LiMn2O4, which is used as positive electrodematerial in rechargeable lithium batteries. Three different typesof electrode configurations have been investigated, namely singleparticles, thin films and composite electrodes. Differentelectrochemical techniques, i.e. linear sweep voltammetry (LSV),electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), potential step, andgalvanostatic experiments were applied under various experimentalconditions. The majority of the experimental data were analysedby relevant mathematical models used for describing the reactionsteps of insertion compounds. It was concluded that a model based on interfacialcharge-transfer, solid-phase diffusion and an external iR-dropcould be fairly well fitted to LSV data measured on a singleelectrode system over a narrow range of sweep rates. However, itwas also found that the fitted parameter values vary greatly withthe characteristic length and the sweep rate. This indicates thatthe physical description used is too simple for explaining theelectrochemical responses measured over a large range of chargeand discharge rates. EIS was found to be a well-suited technique for separatingtime constants for different physical processes in the insertionand extraction reaction. It was demonstrated that the impedanceresponse is strongly dependent on the current collector used.According to the literature, reasonable values of theexchange-current density and solid-phase diffusion coefficientwere determined for various states-of-discharge, temperatures andelectrolyte compositions. Experiments were carried out in bothliquid and gel electrolytes. A method which improves thedistinction between the time constants related to thematerial’s intrinsic properties and possible porous effectsis presented. The method was applied to composite electrodes.This method utilises, in addition to the impedance responsemeasured in front of the electrode, also the impedance measuredat the backside of the electrode. Finally, the kinetics of a composite electrode was alsoinvestigated by in situ X-ray diffraction (in situ XRD) incombination with galvanostatic and potentiostatic experiments. Noevidence of lithium concentration gradients could be observedfrom XRD data, even at the highest rate applied (i.e. ~6C), thusexcluding solid-phase diffusion and also phase-boundary movement,as described by Fick’s law, as the ratelimiting step. <b>Key words:</b>linear sweep voltammetry, electrochemicalimpedance spectroscopy, potential step, in situ X-raydiffraction, microelectrodes, electrode kinetics, LiMn2O4cathode, rechargeable lithium batteries

Conjugated polymers that exhibit high electronic conductivities play key roles in the emerging field of molecular electronics. In particular, linking metal centres with useful electrochemical, photophysical, or catalytic properties to the backbone, or within the polymer chain itself, is a topic which has attracted a significant amount of interest lately. Structurally rigid monomers that can be electropolymerised to form highly conducting molecular wires may provide new insights into conduction mechanisms, e.g., exploiting resonant superexchange (electron-hopping) by tuning the energies of redox centre and bridge states. The focus of this thesis lies on the electrochemical investigation of preparation, growth dynamics, and charge transport dynamics of oligothiophene/transition metal hybrid materials. The incorporation of ruthenium(II) and osmium(II) terpyridine complexes into such polymeric assemblies was accomplished by an electropolymerisation procedure, to produce rod-like oligothienyl-bridged metallopolymers. The properties of the monomers used were characterised by optical spectroscopy and electrochemical techniques. Charge transport was studied in detail for some of the materials created, and it was found that the electron transport rate and dc conductivity was enhanced by up to two orders of magnitude compared to relevant non-conjugated polymers, demonstrating the usefulness of this approach for optimization of charge transport in metallopolymers. The charge transport diffusion coefficent was determined to (2.6 ± 0.5) x 10-6 cm2 s-1 for a quaterthienyl-bridged {Os(tpy)2} polymer by use of an electrochemical steady-state method carried out using a transistor-like experimental geometry. It was found that charge transport in these materials is concentration-gradient driven. The rate limiting step of the charge transport process was investigated using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. The electropolymerisation dynamics of one of the monomers was studied using microelectrodes, and the results obtained shows that electropolymerisation is highly efficient, and indicate that mass transport controls this process. Through a combination of controlled potential deposition and SEM imaging it was demonstrated that it is possible to exploit the edge effect of microelectrodes to promote film growth in a direction co-planar with the electrode surface.

Combined atomic force microscopy-scanning electrochemical microscopy (AFM-SECM) is capable of providing simultaneous topographical and electrochemical imaging at sample surfaces. Integration of amperometric biosensors at tip-integrated electrodes recessed from the apex of the AFM tip further enhances the versatility of such bifunctional probes. Of particular interest to this work was the detection of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) at a cellular level, since ATP is involved in many biologically relevant processes. There are challenges concerning the integration of biosensors into bifunctional AFM-SECM probes. This thesis focuses on addressing and advancing several of these limitations. Thin insulation layers are important for AFM-SECM based applications to enhance AFM and SECM performance. Plasma-polymerized fluorocarbon membranes are introduced as novel thin film insulation materials for AFM-SECM probes. Insulation layers with a thickness of < 300 nm were found to exhibit excellent insulating properties and satisfying temporal stability for successful application in AFM-SECM experiments. Furthermore new approaches for increasing the electrode area in conventionally focused ion beam (FIB) fabricated AFM-SECM probes were implemented, since enhancement of the current response in conjunction with biosensing experiments is required. Ion beam induced deposition (IBID) was used to generate platinum carbon (PtC) deposits at AFM-SECM probes, thereby successfully increasing the tip-integrated electrode area. PtC composites were thoroughly characterized in terms of their physical and electrochemical properties. Since a high carbon fraction in the PtC composite was inhibiting the charge transfer kinetics at the electrode surface for certain analytes, several pre-treatment strategies were investigated including annealing, UV/ozone treatment, and FIB milling. FIB milling proved to be the most promising procedure improving charge transfer properties at the electrode along with fabrication compatibility at AFM-SECM probes. The last part of this thesis aimed at providing fundamental studies on AFM-SECM application at live epithelial cell monolayers. AFM was used in different imaging modes to characterize the topography of epithelial cells. ATP detection at epithelial cells was achieved with amperometric biosensors combined with non-invasive SECM. Biosensors were further miniaturized at batch-fabricated AFM-SECM probes enabling laterally-resolved detection of ATP at epithelial cells. Additionally, PtC composite materials were evaluated for applicability as transducer platforms for enzymatic biosensors.

<p>This thesis is concerned with kinetic characterisation of theinsertion compound LiMn2O4, which is used as positive electrodematerial in rechargeable lithium batteries. Three different typesof electrode configurations have been investigated, namely singleparticles, thin films and composite electrodes. Differentelectrochemical techniques, i.e. linear sweep voltammetry (LSV),electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), potential step, andgalvanostatic experiments were applied under various experimentalconditions. The majority of the experimental data were analysedby relevant mathematical models used for describing the reactionsteps of insertion compounds.</p><p>It was concluded that a model based on interfacialcharge-transfer, solid-phase diffusion and an external iR-dropcould be fairly well fitted to LSV data measured on a singleelectrode system over a narrow range of sweep rates. However, itwas also found that the fitted parameter values vary greatly withthe characteristic length and the sweep rate. This indicates thatthe physical description used is too simple for explaining theelectrochemical responses measured over a large range of chargeand discharge rates.</p><p>EIS was found to be a well-suited technique for separatingtime constants for different physical processes in the insertionand extraction reaction. It was demonstrated that the impedanceresponse is strongly dependent on the current collector used.According to the literature, reasonable values of theexchange-current density and solid-phase diffusion coefficientwere determined for various states-of-discharge, temperatures andelectrolyte compositions. Experiments were carried out in bothliquid and gel electrolytes. A method which improves thedistinction between the time constants related to thematerial’s intrinsic properties and possible porous effectsis presented. The method was applied to composite electrodes.This method utilises, in addition to the impedance responsemeasured in front of the electrode, also the impedance measuredat the backside of the electrode.</p><p>Finally, the kinetics of a composite electrode was alsoinvestigated by in situ X-ray diffraction (in situ XRD) incombination with galvanostatic and potentiostatic experiments. Noevidence of lithium concentration gradients could be observedfrom XRD data, even at the highest rate applied (i.e. ~6C), thusexcluding solid-phase diffusion and also phase-boundary movement,as described by Fick’s law, as the ratelimiting step.</p><p><b>Key words:</b>linear sweep voltammetry, electrochemicalimpedance spectroscopy, potential step, in situ X-raydiffraction, microelectrodes, electrode kinetics, LiMn2O4cathode, rechargeable lithium batteries</p>

No description available.