Microgels are solvent-swollen cross-linked gel particles with sub-micron diameters and have been widely investigated for drug delivery applications. Thermoresponsive microgels based on poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM) have attracted particular attention given their potential to enable pulsatile or environment-specific drug release. However, current methods to make thermoresponsive microgels yield functionally non-degradable materials, significantly limiting their utility in vivo. Herein, hydrazone chemistry was applied to cross-link hydrazide and aldehyde-functionalized precursor polymers together to form degradable PNIPAM microgels on different length scales that enable potential use of thermoresponsive microgels in vivo in a way not currently possible. For micron-scale microgels, microfluidics was employed to create monodisperse microgels between 30-90 m. For nano-scale microgels, a temperature-driven aggregation/self-assembly technique was developed that resulted in the formation of microgels with sizes between 200-300 nm. In either case, the microgels can be slowly degraded through hydrazone hydrolysis. Functionalized microgels can be made by incorporating pH-responsive 2-dimethylaminoethylmethacrylate (DMAEMA) or glucose-responsive phenylboronic acid in the precursor polymers. The potential utility of degradable microgels in drug delivery was studied using in situ gelling microgel-hydrogel nanocomposites. Changing the microgel cross-link density and whether or not the microgels were physically entrapped or covalently cross-linked to the bulk hydrogel matrix resulted in significant changes in drug release kinetics, with burst release particularly mitigated by increasing the cross-link density of the microgels. Microgels made via microfluidics were then utilized to make fully degradable microgel-hydrogel composites consisting of chemically identical gel chemistries on both the bulk and micro length scales. Carbohydrates (carboxymethyl cellulose and dextran) and PNIPAM gel phases were oriented in different relative geometries to examine how the phase distribution impacted drug release. Results suggest that drug release can be controlled through the selection of polymer type of each phase, with the deswelling phase transitions of PNIPAM playing a particularly large role in slowing release of the drug. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / Microgels are solvent-swollen gel particles that have sub-micron diameters and have been widely investigated for a variety of biomedical applications. Temperature-responsive microgels based on poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM) hold particular promise given that they can swell and deswell in response to changes in temperature, enabling pulsatile or environment-specific release of a drug. However, current thermoresponsive microgels are not degradable and therefore have limited utility in the body. In this thesis, degradable temperature-responsive microgels were developed on two length scales (micron and nano-sized) to enable their ultimate use in the body. Microgels responsive to changes in solution pH or the presence of glucose (both clinically-relevant stimuli) were made using similar techniques. Combinations of these microgels with injectable hydrogels enabled tuning of the rate of drug release by changing physical microgel and/or hydrogel, as investigated both experimentally and theoretically. The research conducted thus has the potential to impact clinical drug delivery vehicle design.

<p> The key objective of this research was to study the rates of the chemical cleavage of benzyl-silicon bonds in small model molecules, oligomers, polymers, copolymers, and crosslinked microspheres and microgels.</p> <p> Substrate species including benzyltrimethylsilane (BTMS), p-isopropylbenzyltrimethylsilane (ISO-BTMS), oligomeric and polymeric vinylbenzyltrimethylsilane (VBTMS), and their copolymers with styrene and methyl methacrylate as well as microspheres and microgels of bis(vinylbenzyl)dimethylsilane (BVBDMS) were synthesized using Grignard reaction, free radical polymerization, and precipitation polymerization.</p> <p> Narrow dispersed microspheres were synthesized from bis(vinylbenzyl)dimethylsilane (BVBDMS) by precipitation polymerization in acetonitrile. The reactivities of para/para, meta/meta, and meta/para isomers of BVBDMS in precipitation polymerization were found to be similar and to obey first-order kinetics. Their apparent rate of polymerization is comparable with that of meta and para divinylbenzene isomers under identical polymerization conditions. FT-IR analysis of BVBDMS microspheres shows that there are only few pendant double bonds in the particles. This is likely due to the similar reactivity of isolated double bonds of BVBDMS.</p> <p> Two nucleophilic (hydroxide and fluoride ion) and one oxidative (ceric ammonium nitrate) reagents have been used to cleave the benzylic-silicon bonds of the substrates. The cleavage reactions were quantitatively monitored by 1H-NMR / 29Si-NMR or FT-IR to derive the reaction kinetic parameters. The reaction behavior of most of the substrates differed from that expected based on the Flory's principle of equal reactivity.</p> <p> Among the hydroxide ion initiated cleavage reactions, the small molecules and the oligomeric analogs obeyed first-order kinetics, but the homopolymer and the copolymers deviated from first-order kinetics. This could be due to the low concentration of hydroxide ion in the polymer matrix, arising from the exclusion of polar hydroxide ion from the hydrophobic polymer matrix. The p-isopropylbenzyltrimethylsilane exhibited a lower pseudo first-order rate than benzyltrimethylsilane. This is attributed to an electron releasing substituent effect. Methyl methacrylate can accelerate the reaction on poly(vinylbenzyltrimethylsilane-co-methyl methacrylate) by increasing the overall copolymer polarity. The reverse is true for the corresponding styrene copolymers owing to the steric hindrance offered by the phenyl ring of styrene, and the enhanced hydrophobic repulsion against the access of hydroxide ion into the polymer matrix. An electrophilically assisted process was proposed as a principal reaction mechanism for this cleavage reaction. It was found that the only nucleophile attacking on silicon would be the hydroxide ion in KOH/EtOH/THF promoted reactions.</p> <p> Fluoride ion initiated cleavage reactions of substrates containing benzylic-silicon bonds were found to follow first-order kinetics. The reaction on small molecules was not studied due to their very rapid reaction at room temperature. The homopolymer of vinylbenzyltrimethylsilane exhibited a higher rate of reaction than the corresponding oligomer. However, the change in the reaction rate within a copolymer series, differing in molecular weight and composition, was not significant. Poly(VBTMS-co-MMA) exhibited a rate higher than that of styrene copolymers for polarity or steric reasons.</p> <p> Oxidative cleavage of benzylic-silicon bond by ceric ammonium nitrate (CAN) was found to obey first-order kinetics at 1:3 substrate to cerium(IV) ratio, and did not show any deviation in reaction order even at higher CAN concentration. The electron releasing isopropyl group reduces the oxidation potential of p-isopropylbenzyltrimethylsilane (ISO-BTMS), resulting in an enhanced reaction rate compared to benzyltrimethylsilane (BTMS). This rate accelerating substituent effect, together with a much higher negative value (-5.4) of Hammett reaction constant p is in accordance with the radical-cation mechanism operating in ceric ammonium nitrate promoted oxidation reactions. Significant loss of silane functionality was observed in reactions with polymeric substrates. This is attributed to the benzylic radical coupling reactions. The possibility of polymer backbone cleavage is ruled out for the following reasons: A) lack of significant molecular weight reduction in the oxidation products of polymeric substrates. B) about 100 times easier breaking of benzylic-silicon bond as trimethylsilyl cation than a hydrogen from carbon as proton, and the steric congestion offered by the polymer chain favors the benzylic radical formation only at the primary carbon, not on tertiary methine (C-H) on the chain.</p> / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc)

The capability of precisely controlling the kinetics of therapeutic delivery at the optimal location and rate for a given patient would have great potential to improve health and well-being in a range of current drug therapies (insulin, chemotherapeutics, vaccines, etc.). Indeed, if successfully developed, locally administered injectable drug delivery vehicles capable of remotely-triggered release would be the gold standard for many treatments. Multiple injectable nanocomposites have been investigated for this purpose that are generally comprised of a thermosensitive polymeric material and superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs). SPIONs generate heat when exposed remote alternating magnetic fields (AMFs), and the transfer of this heat to thermosensitive polymers can be used to control the release of therapeutics. Ideally, these systems would be capable of returning to their original state and basal release rate when the external AMF trigger is removed. Several novel injectable nanocomposite materials that explore interactions between SPIONs and thermosensitive polymers to mediate drug release, from the macroscale to the nanoscale, were developed and demonstrated to be capable of remotely-triggered, AMF-mediated enhanced release. The macroscale magnetic nanocomposites have thermosensitive hydrogel and/or microgel components that regulate release based on the heat produced from SPIONs in response to an external AMF. On the millimeter-scale, a microinjection system capable of producing thermosensitive hydrogel beads that could potentially incorporate SPIONs is described. On the nanoscale, nanoparticles with a glass transition temperature and thermosensitive microgels are combined with SPIONs and investigated for their remote, AMF-mediated release characteristics. The engineered macroscale and nanoscale systems are capable of up to ~4:1 and ~7:1 enhancements in release due to an AMF application, respectively, compared to the basal release rate. Collectively, these nanocomposites represent a promising stride towards improved remote-actuation of drug release and a stepping stone for future attempts at precisely controlling the site and kinetics of drug release. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / This thesis focuses on the development of nanocomposite materials that can be injected into a specific location in the body and deliver therapeutic drugs by a remote-controlled process. These nanocomposites are composed of magnetic particles and polymers that respond to changes in temperature. The combination of these materials results in nanocomposites that can change their properties in response to specific magnetic fields to switch from releasing drug slowly (or not at all) to releasing drug quickly on demand. The changes are fully reversible and solely depend on whether the external magnetic field is switched on or off. These novel systems offer an alternative to therapies that require frequent injections, such as insulin for diabetes, or therapies that need the drug to be released in very precise locations, such as cancer treatments, and could improve the safety, reduce the risk of side effects, and lower the cost of many medical treatments.

<p>N-chloramide containing and primary amine-containing microgels were prepared by post-modification of thermosensitive microgels in alkaline bleach. The objective of this project was to develop simple strategies for preparation of functionalized microgels.</p> <p>N-chlorination of linear poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM) in bleach at high pH resulted in a novel N-chloramide containing copolymer: poly(NIPAM-co-NIPAMCl). The chlorinated PNIPAM showed controlled phase transition temperature and oxidative ability. The N-chlorination of linear PNIPAM inspired the preparation of N-chloramide containing PNIPAM microgels in a similar way. The phase transition temperature of the resulted chlorinated microgels, which corresponds to the extent of N-chlorination, was affected by the reaction temperature and salt concentration. The reaction between the chlorinated microgels and glutathione is proposed as diffusion controlled.</p> <p>The N-chlorination of poly(N-isopropylmethacrylamide) (PNIPMAM) microgels in bleach was restricted, in comparison with PNIPAM microgels. The active chlorine content of chlorinated PNIPMAM microgels was about one-tenth of that of chlorinated PNIPAM microgels under the same N-chlorination condition. It is proposed that the high stability of PNIPMAM in bleach is a result of the electron-donating effect of methyl groups on PNIPMAM backbone. Hence, core-shell microgels with PNIPAM cores and poly(NIPAM-co-NIPMAM) shells showed improved colloidal stability after N-chlorination because the shell was less chlorinated and served as a steric stabilizer.</p> <p>Finally, primary amine-containing microgels were prepared via Hofmann rearrangement of copolymers of methacrylamide, which decomposed to give amines, and NIPMAM, which did not react. The method was further extended to give amphoteric microgels by including acrylic acid in the starting microgels. Although other approaches to aminated and amphoteric microgels have been developed, this approach is particularly attractive because of the ease of the reaction and the ability to control the microgel isoelectric points.</p> / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

Cancer is a complex and dynamic disease that is difficult to treat due to its heterogeneous nature at multiple scales. Standard therapies such as surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy often fail, therefore superior therapies must be developed. Electroporation-based therapies offer an alternative to standard treatments, utilizing pulsed electric fields to permeabilize cell membranes to either enhance drug delivery (electrochemotherapy) or induce cancer cell death (irreversible electroporation). Electroporation treatments show promise in the clinic, however, are limited in the size of tumors that they can safely treat without increasing the applied voltage to an extent that induces thermal damage or muscle contractions in patients. A method to increase ablation size safely is needed. To make this advancement and to advance other cancer treatments as well, better in vitro tumor models are needed. Heterogeneity not only makes cancer difficult to treat, but also difficult to recapitulate in vitro. This dissertation addresses the complementary need to develop both better cancer therapies and more physiologically relevant in vitro tumor models. My results demonstrate that by using a calcium adjuvant with irreversible electroporation treatment, ablation size can be increased without using a higher applied voltage. Additional mechanistic studies identified signaling pathways that were differentially dysregulated under calcium and no calcium conditions, impacting cell death. Finally, I have successfully encapsulated cells in fibrin microgels which may enable the creation of more physiologically relevant and complex 3D in vitro and ex-vivo platforms to investigate IRE as well as other tumor therapies. / Doctor of Philosophy / Cancer is a complex and dynamic disease. Heterogeneity exists at the single cell, tumor, and patient levels making it difficult to establish a unified target for therapy. Standard therapies such as surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy often fail for this reason, therefore superior therapies must be developed. Electroporation-based therapies offer an alternative to standard treatments, utilizing pulsed electric fields to permeabilize cell membranes to either enhance drug delivery (electrochemotherapy) or induce cancer cell death (irreversible electroporation). Electroporation treatments show promise in the clinic, however, are limited in the size of tumors that they can safely treat without increasing the applied voltage to an extent that induces thermal damage or muscle contractions in patients. A method to increase ablation size safely is needed. To make this advancement and to advance other cancer treatments as well, better tumor models are needed. Many of the same challenges in treating cancer serve as challenges in creating physiologically relevant tumor models. In this dissertation, I have developed a simplified platform to test whether using a calcium additive with irreversible electroporation therapies enhances ablation size. My results demonstrate that by using a calcium additive with irreversible electroporation treatment, ablation size can be increased without using a higher applied voltage. In addition, the biological pathways responsible for cell death in irreversible electroporation treatment with and without calcium were studied. Finally, I have successfully encapsulated cells in fibrin microgels that can be used to create better tumor models that encompass the heterogeneity of tumors found in the body.

Alternating copolymers represent a special class of copolymers in which the two comonomers copolymerize in a regular alternating sequence along the polymer chain. Of particular interest in our group are the stilbene-maleic anhydride/maleimide alternating copolymers. These copolymers possess sterically congested backbones and precisely placed functional groups arising from the strictly alternating copolymerization. The research in this dissertation is focused on the synthesis, characterization, and potential application of functionalized copolymers that contain semi-rigid alternating copolymer sequences. The fluorescence properties of a series of non-conjugated, tert-butyl carboxylate functionalized alternating copolymers were investigated. Extraordinarily high fluorescent intensity with excellent linearity was observed for the di-tert-butyl group-containing stilbene and maleic anhydride alternating copolymer in THF. We attributed the origin of the strong fluorescence to the “through space” π – π interactions between the phenyl rings from the stilbene and C=O groups from the anhydride. The fluorescence was maintained when the copolymer was deprotected and hydrolyzed and the resulting carboxylic acid-functionalized copolymer was dissolved in water at neutral pH. The tert-butyl carboxylate functionalized alternating copolymer sequences were incorporated into highly crosslinked polymer networks using suspension polymerization. After removing the tert-butyl groups by acidic hydrolysis, the surface area of the networks increased significantly. Using this facile two-step strategy, we were able to achieve nanoporous polymers with BET surface area up to 817 m2/g and carboxylic acid-functionalized surfaces. The BET surface area of deprotected polymers increased with increasing crosslinking density, and the stilbene-containing polymers showed systematically higher BET surface area than the styrene-containing polymers due to the stiffness of the alternating sequences. The resulting nanoporous polymers have potential to be employed as solid sorbents for CO2. The same tert-butyl carboxylate functionalized alternating copolymer sequences were also incorporated into microgels via miniemulsion polymerization. The miniemulsion technique ensured the successful synthesis of microgels with ~100 nm diameter using solid stilbene and maleimide monomers. The resulting tert-butyl carboxylate-containing microgels were converted into carboxylic acid-containing aqueous microgels by acid hydrolysis. These aqueous microgels showed good and reversible lead and copper ion adsorption capacities. Amine-functionalized nanoporous polymers were synthesized by the post-modification of highly-crosslinked divinylbenzene-maleic anhydride polymers. High amine-contents were achieved by covalently attaching multiamines to the acid-chloride functionalized polymer surface. The resulting polymers showed medium to high BET surface areas (up to 500 m2/g) and high CO2 capture capacities. / PHD

Des émulsions particulièrement stables peuvent être formulées à l’aide de particules colloïdales (émulsions dites de Pickering). L’objectif de cette étude est d’accéder à la compréhension des mécanismes de stabilisation des interfaces, ainsi que du lien entre propriétés interfaciales et propriétés macroscopiques des émulsions. Dans ce cadre, la stratégie adoptée repose sur l’utilisation de particules colloïdales dont les caractéristiques peuvent être variées continûment à la fois en amont par la chimie de synthèse (variation de la mouillabilité, de la déformabilité) et in situ par un stimulus (pH, sel, température...). De plus,les émulsions stabilisées par de telles particules deviennent, elles aussi, sensibles aux stimuli et la déstabilisation des émulsions peut être déclenchée à la demande. Les mécanismes d’adsorption, les interactions entre particules aux interfaces et les propriétés résultantes des émulsions sont étudiés. L’établissement de concepts généraux régissant la stabilisation/déstabilisation des émulsions permet d’en contrôler, via la formulation ou le procédé (température, cisaillement), les propriétés d’usage. Enfin les émulsions stabilisées par des particules colloïdales peuvent être utilisées en tant que précurseurs dans la formulation de matériaux plus complexes : ceci est illustré par l’élaboration de capsules à libération thermostimulée / Highly stable emulsions can be formulated using colloidal particles as stabilizers (so-calledPickering emulsions). This study aims at understanding the interfacial stabilizationmechanisms as well as the links between the interfacial properties and the macroscopicproperties of emulsions. In this context, our strategy consists in using colloidal particles forwhich characteristics can be continuously tuned either during the synthesis (variation of theparticles’ wettability or deformability) or in situ by using a stimulus (pH, salt, temperature…).Emulsions stabilized by such particles are stimuli responsive and their destabilization can betriggered on demand. We study and report the mechanisms of particle adsorption, theinteractions between particles anchored at interfaces and the resulting properties of emulsions.Such study allows us to draw general concepts governing the emulsionsstabilization/destabilization and to control their end-use properties via formulation oremulsification process (temperature, shear). Colloidal particle stabilized-emulsions can beused as templates to synthesize more complex materials as illustrated by the elaboration ofcapsules allowing a thermally controlled delivery of their content.

Thèse de recherche en chimie dans le domaine des polymères / Les polymères photostimulables sont une classe spécifique de polymères stimulables capables de subir un changement de conformation sous l’action de l’irradiation lumineuse. La lumière est un stimulus externe physique pouvant avoir un impact sur un matériau sans modifier directement sa composition chimique. De plus, la taille d’un faisceau lumineux comme le laser peut atteindre des dimensions de l’ordre de la centaine de nanomètres, permettant son utilisation pour les travaux de précision. Enfin, pouvoir allumer et éteindre la source de lumière de manière instantanée rend ce stimulus attrayant pour un vaste choix d’applications en raison de la possibilité de contrôler avec précision les échelles de temps d’utilisation du stimulus. C’est pourquoi les chercheurs s’intéresse à la lumière en tant que stimulus et à ses potentielles applications pour les polymères stimulables. Dans les deux premiers chapitres de ce manuscrit, la lumière sera utilisée pour induire indirectement une réponse au sein de polymères thermostimulables. Pour cela, des matériaux photothermiques capables de convertir la lumière en chaleur seront combinés avec des polymères thermostimulables à base de microgels de poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM) afin de préparer des matériaux composites. Ces types de matériaux sont déjà bien connus dans la littérature. Cependant, à l’échelle micrométrique, ils souffrent d’une mauvaise optimisation en raison de la ségrégation des matériaux lors de leur préparation. Le premier chapitre traitera tout d’abord de la préparation d’un tel composite à base de microgels de PNIPAM et de nanoparticules d’or (AuNPs). Différents paramètres permettant d’améliorer la dispersion des AuNPs dans les microgels seront identifiés dans le but d’optimiser la synthèse de ces matériaux composites. Ensuite, les microgels composites seront immobilisés en surface, et leur gonflement en surface en fonction de la température et de l’irradiation sera étudié à l’aide de la technique Surface Force Apparatus (SFA). Cette étude innovante rapporte pour la première fois la caractérisation quantitative du gonflement de polymères photo- et thermostimulables immobilisés en surface à l’échelle du nanomètre. En effet, ce type de système n’a jusqu’à maintenant été étudié que de manière qualitative. Dans un second chapitre, les AuNPs qui ont servi de nanoparticules photothermiques modèles ont été remplacées par la polydopamine (PDA), une nanoparticule aux propriétés photothermiques dont l’intérêt s’est développé plus récemment. La PDA, comme les AuNPs, interagit et se complexe avec les amines primaires contenus dans nos microgels de PNIPAM. Ainsi, les deux systèmes composites sont présumés similaires en termes de conformation et de structure. Les microgels composites à base de PDA ont été préparés dans des proportions équivalentes de nanoparticules photothermiques à celles à base de AuNPs de l’étude précédente, ce qui a permis leur comparaison. Les deux matériaux composites ont démontré des propriétés photothermiques similaires, avec cependant des performances légèrement supérieures pour les microgels composites à base de PDA. Utilisant des sources d’irradiation de même puissance, la PDA, lorsqu’irradiée à 360 nm, semble démontrer des propriétés photothermiques environ 25% supérieures à celles des AuNPs sphériques irradiées à leur longueur d’onde de résonance plasmonique. Bien qu’étant supérieur en termes de propriétés photothermiques, le gonflement en surface des microgels composites à base de PDA était inférieur à celui des microgels composites à base d’AuNPs. Cette différence de comportement s’explique par une densité de greffage des microgels composites à base de PDA inférieure à la densité de greffage des microgels composites à base d’AuNPs. Il en résulte une augmentation de l’espace adjacent pour les microgels moins densément greffés pouvant gonfler dans toutes les directions contrairement à une densité de greffage importante qui favorise le gonflement des microgels de manière perpendiculaire au substrat. Enfin, dans le troisième chapitre, des brosses de polymères aux propriétés réversiblement photo-dimérisables ont été préparées. Pour cela, des chaînes pendantes de coumarine ont été introduites dans les brosses de polymères. La coumarine est un groupement qui peut subir une dimérisation sous l’effet de la lumière UVA (λUVA > 310 nm) et peut se dédimériser réversiblement sous l’irradiation des UVC (λUVC < 260 nm). La photo-dimérisation de la coumarine ne peut avoir lieu que si elle respecte certains critères stricts, à savoir une orientation parallèle ou antiparallèle des groupements de coumarine et une distance de séparation inférieure à 4,2 Å. Ainsi, l’immobilisation de la coumarine sur une surface peut affecter la photo-dimérisation en raison de la difficulté de contrôler la distance de séparation entre les groupements de coumarine situés sur les chaînes de polymères adjacentes immobilisées en bout de chaînes. Dans cette partie, la propriété de photo-dimérisation réversible des brosses de polymères contenant des chaînes pendantes de coumarine a ainsi été étudiée en fonction de la distance de séparation entre les chaînes polymériques. De plus, la caractérisation de la capacité de gonflement de la couche de polymères ainsi obtenue dans l’eau a permis d’estimer la nature de la photo-dimérisation des chaînes polymériques, qui est favorisée de manière intermoléculaire pour un greffage dense de chaînes de polymères. / Photo-responsive polymers are a specific class of stimuli-responsive polymers which undergo conformational changes under light irradiation. Light is an external physical stimulus which can impact a medium without affecting its chemical composition. Width beam can be as low as a few hundreds of nanometers, which makes it usable for precision work. Furthermore, the capacity to turn off and on the light source instantaneously makes it very attractive for all kind of applications because of the possibility to control the timescale of the stimulus. Therefore, the work will focus on the study of light as a stimulus and its potentials of applications in order to trigger a response in stimuli-responsive polymers either directly, or indirectly. In the first two chapters of this manuscript, light will be used to trigger indirectly a response in thermo-responsive polymers. For this, photothermal materials that can convert light into heat will be combined with thermo-responsive polymers based on poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM) microgels in order to prepare composite materials. These types of materials are already well known in the literature. However, at the microscale level, they suffer from poor optimization because of segregation of materials during the preparation process. The first chapter will treat the preparation of such composite based on PNIPAM microgels and gold nanoparticles (AuNPs). Different parameters allowing the improvement of AuNPs dispersion in the microgels will be identified in order to optimize the synthesis of the composite materials. Then, the composite microgels were immobilized on surface, and their swelling as a function of the temperature, and triggered by light were studied using the Surface Force Apparatus (SFA). This innovative study reports the first quantitative characterization of the swelling of photo- and thermo-responsive polymers immobilized on surfaces and at the nanometer scale. Indeed, these systems have been reported multiple times in the literature. However, the nature and scale at which these materials are studied were so far limited to qualitative characterizations only. In the second chapter, the AuNPs which served as model photothermal nanoparticles were swapped with polydopamine (PDA), a nanoparticle with photothermal properties whose interest has recently grown. PDA, like AuNPs, can interact and complex with primary amines that are present in our PNIPAM microgels. Thus, both composite systems were expected to be similar in terms of conformation and structure. The PDA containing composite microgels were prepared using equivalent proportions of photothermal nanoparticles compared to the precedent study, allowing a comparison of both PDA and AuNPs containing composite microgels. Both composites demonstrated similar photothermal properties, albeit a slightly better performance for the composite microgels based on PDA. Using light sources of equivalent power, PDA demonstrated photothermal properties when irradiated at 360 nm, approximately 25% superior than that of spherical AuNPs irradiated at their localized surface plasmon resonance. Despite being slightly superior in terms of photothermal responsive properties, the surface swelling of the PDA containing composites were inferior to that of AuNPs containing composites because of differences in terms of grafting caused by differences of interactions between the composites with silica-based substrates. Finally, in the third chapter, polymer brushes with reversibly photo-dimerizable properties were prepared. For this purpose, pendant chains of coumarin were introduced into polymer brushes. Coumarin is a functional group that can undergo dimerization under the influence of UVA light (λUVA > 310 nm) and can reversibly dedimerize upon irradiation with UVC (λUVC < 260 nm). The photo-dimerization of coumarin can only occur if strict criteria are met, including a parallel or antiparallel orientation of the coumarin groups and a separation distance of less than 4.2 Å. Thus, the immobilization of coumarin on a surface can affect the photo-dimerization due to the difficulty of controlling the separation distance between the coumarin groups located on end-tethered adjacent polymer chains. In this part, the reversible property of photo-dimerization of polymer brushes containing pendant chains of coumarin was studied as a function of the separation distance between the polymer chains. Furthermore, the characterization of the swelling capacity of the resulting polymer layer in water allowed us to assess the nature of the photo-dimerization of the polymer chains, which is favored in an intermolecular manner for densely grafted polymer chains.

Materials science today is a multidisciplinary effort comprising an accelerated convergence of diverse fields spanning the physical, applied, and engineering sciences. This diversity promises to deliver the next generation of advanced functional materials for a wide range of specific applications. In particular, the past decade has seen a growing interest in the development of nanoscale materials for sophisticated technologies. Aqueous colloidal microgels have emerged as a promising class of soft materials for multiple biotechnology applications. The amalgamation of physical, chemical and mechanical properties of microgels with optical properties of nanostructures in hybrid composite particles further enhances the capabilities of these materials. This work covers the general areas of responsive polymer microgels and their composites, and encompasses methods of fabricating microgel-based drug delivery systems for controlled and targeted therapeutic applications. The first part of this thesis is devoted to acquainting the reader with the fundamental aspects of the synthesis, functionalization and characteristic properties of stimulus-responsive microgels constructed from poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (poly(NIPAm)) and other functional comonomers. In particular, the role of electrostatics on the swelling-deswelling transitions of polyampholyte microgels upon exposure to a range of environmental stimuli including pH, temperature, and salt concentration are discussed. The templated synthesis of bimetallic gold and silver nanoparticles in zwitterionic microgels is also described. The latter part of this thesis focuses on the rational development of microgel-based drug delivery systems for controlled and targeted drug release. Specifically, the development of a biofunctionalized, pH-responsive drug delivery system (DDS) is illustrated, and shown to effectively suppress cancer cells when loaded with an anticancer agent. In another chapter, the design of tailored hybrid particles that combine the thermal response of microgels with the light-sensitive properties of gold nanorods to create a DDS for photothermally-induced drug release is discussed. The photothermally-triggered volume transitions of hybrid microgels under physiological conditions are reported, and their suitability for the said application evaluated. In another component of this work, it is explicitly shown that electrostatic interactions were not needed to deposit gold nanorods on poly(NIPAm)-derived particles, thereby eliminating the need for incorporation of charged functional groups in the microgels that are otherwise responsible for large, undesirable shifts and broadening of the phase transition.

Multi-sensitive microgel particles are covalently crosslinked polymeric chains with a colloidal dimension that can rapidly change their volume through various external stimuli such as pH, ionic strength, temperature, and magnetic and electric field. Due to these characteristics, increasing attention has been focus on the development of multi-sensitive microgels, mainly for application as drug delivery carriers. This study aimed to synthesise pH- and temperature-sensitive microgel particles, based on precipitation polymerisation of N-isopropylacrylamide and acrylic acid, with a defined size, narrow size distribution, spherical morphology and colloidal stability to be used as an oral drug carrier. In order to provide better biocompatibility and biodegradability in the synthesised material, some assays were performed, adding the chitosan biopolymer during the polymerisation of the monomers previously mentioned. This thesis also intended to contribute to a better understanding of the relationship between the microgel synthesis and their properties using spectroscopic techniques to monitor the microgel formation. A new approach was proposed to monitoring the process variables, monomer conversion and average particle size of the microgel particles, during precipitation polymerisation using NIR and UV-VIS-NIR high-resolution spectrophotometers coupled with a probe. Besides, the influence of reaction conditions in the physicochemical characteristics of microgel particles was extensively investigated as well as their potential as an oral drug carrier for insulin. The monitoring results pointed out the enormous potential of these spectroscopy techniques to monitor the precipitation polymerisation process, allowing control over the polymerisation reaction with quickly and directly acquisition of data in real-time. In general, pH- and temperature-sensitive microgels were successfully synthesised, and many formulations showed to be suitable for application as oral drug carriers. However, the preliminary in vitro release results were not satisfactory, and a more in-depth study between the interaction of the drug with the particles as well as the method of release is recommended. In conclusion, with a proper understanding of the influence of the process conditions (e.g., reagent concentrations) on the physicochemical properties of the microgels, it is possible to tailor the multi-sensitive microgels for the desired application. / Microgéis multisensíveis são partículas poliméricas covalentemente reticuladas, com uma dimensão coloidal, e com capacidade para mudar o seu volume através de vários estímulos externos, como por exemplo, pH, força iônica, temperatura e campos magnéticos ou elétricos. Devido a essas características, estas partículas têm recebido grande atenção, principalmente na aplicação como carreadores de fármacos. O objetivo deste estudo foi sintetizar partículas de microgéis sensíveis ao pH e à temperatura através da polimerização por precipitação dos monômeros N-isoproprilacrilamida e ácido acrílico, que tivessem tamanho definido, distribuição de tamanho estreita, morfologia esférica e estabilidade coloidal, para serem utilizadas como carreadores oral de fármacos. Com o intuito de proporcionar melhor biocompatibilidade e biodegradabilidade no material sintetizado, foram realizados alguns ensaios acrescentando o biopolímero quitosana durante a polimerização dos monômeros citados anteriormente. O presente trabalho também teve como objetivo contribuir para uma melhor compreensão da relação entre a síntese de microgéis e suas propriedades utilizando técnicas espectroscópicas para monitorar a formação dos microgéis. Uma nova abordagem foi proposta para monitorar as variáveis de processo, conversão de monômero e tamanho médio das partículas de microgel, durante a polimerização por precipitação através de espectrofotômetros NIR e UV-VIS-NIR acoplados a uma sonda. Além disso, a influência das condições da reação nas características físico-químicas das partículas de microgel foi extensivamente investigada, bem como o seu potencial como carreador oral de insulina. Os resultados do monitoramento indicaram o enorme potencial das técnicas espectroscópicas utilizadas, permitindo o controle da polimerização com aquisição rápida e direta dos dados em tempo real. Em geral, os microgéis sensíveis ao pH e à temperatura foram sintetizados com sucesso, e algumas formulações mostraram-se adequadas para aplicação como veículos de fármaco através da via oral. No entanto, os resultados preliminares da liberação in vitro não foram satisfatórios, e um estudo mais aprofundado entre a interação do fármaco com as partículas e o método de liberação é recomendado. Em conclusão, com uma compreensão adequada da influência das condições do processo (nesse caso, da concentração dos reagentes) nas propriedades físico-químicas dos microgéis, é possível ajustá-las para obtenção de microgéis multissensíveis com características adequadas para a aplicação desejada.