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Microvasculatures may become damaged by a variety of acute and chronic diseases. In many cases, microvessel function is irreversibly compromised, leading to the dysfunction and even death of surrounding tissues. Currently, there are few therapies that directly address the treatment of microvascular insufficiency. Responding to this need, researchers are developing methods to fabricate in vitro blood vessels. Typical strategies include; cellular sodding within polymers and/or biopolymers, the formation of cylindrical cellular monolayers around polymer mandrels, and the modification of biocompatible surfaces for cellular adhesion. Using currently available techniques, simple, individual vessel conduits have been engineered with internal diameters down to 150μm. However, no evidence has been provided illustrating the formation of patent, interconnected microvessel networks without the aid of a host circulatory system. In response to this challenge, it is hypothesized that a novel flow-based experimental system will support the in vitro development of three-dimensional microvascular tissues. Addressing this hypothesis, the presented work focused on three specific aims: Specific Aim 1. Pattern planar in vitro three-dimensional microvasculatures. Specific Aim 2. Engineer a Dynamic In vitro Perfusion Chamber (DIP Chamber) for microvascular investigation. Specific Aim 3. In vitro perfusion of microvessel fragments within the DIP Chamber. Through the supporting experiments, directed endothelial sprouting from parent isolated microvessel fragments was achieved. In addition, patent in vitro microvessel networks were successfully developed. The presented experiments are the first to achieve these experimental results. In addition, the described experimental model will provide a unique method for future investigations of microcirculatory phenomena. Since no exogenous growth factors or cell signals were introduced into the constructs, it is believed that this system presents a physiological platform for future investigations into angiogenesis, angioadaptation, and network remodeling. Moreover, this model may offer a useful platform for vascular therapeutic testing and a foundation for future tissue engineering applications.

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(医学) / 甲第20980号 / 医博第4326号 / 新制||医||1026(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院医学研究科医学専攻 / (主査)教授 原田 浩, 教授 松田 道行, 教授 横出 正之 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Medical Science / Kyoto University / DFAM

Organic nitrates, such as nitroglycerine (NTG), are widely used for their potent vasodilator capacity in the management of coronary artery disease and heart failure. Unfortunately, their beneficial effect is rapidly lost due to the development of nitrate tolerance, which is translated by an impaired vasorelaxation to NTG and an increased oxidative stress production. Although the mechanisms of the development of nitrate tolerance are still not fully elucidated, much interest has been focused in treating nitrate-receiving patients together with other drugs in order to overcome the development of nitrate tolerance. The Nitric Oxide generating enzyme, eNOS, and the superoxide anion generating enzyme, NAD(P)H oxidase, have been suggested to play a role in the development of nitrate tolerance. The aim of this study was to analyse the underlying mechanism by which ramipril, an ACE inhibitor and rosuvastatin, a new molecule of the statin class, are able to protect against the development of nitrate tolerance in the aortas isolated from rats, wild-type (wt) and eNOS-/- mice. These results show that ramipril as well as rosuvastatin are able to protect against the development of nitrate tolerance in the wt and eNOS-/- mice aortas suggesting that eNOS is not necessary for their protective effect. The aortas from nitrate tolerant rats and mice showed a significant increase in the NAD(P)H oxidase activation compared to the aortas from the control and from the co-treated ramipril+NTG or rosuvastatin+NTG animals. In line with these findings were the results obtained by RT-PCR analysis: the mRNA expression of the different subunits of the NAD(P)H oxidase, such as gp91phox, p22phox, were significantly decreased after rosuvastatin or ramipril treatment in wt and eNOS-/- mice aortas. Apocynin, the NAD(P)H oxidase inhibitor was also able to inhibit the development of nitrate tolerance in the rat and mouse aortas. In conclusion, these results suggest that rosuvastatin and ramipril are able to protect against the development of nitrate tolerance by counteracting the nitrate-induced oxidative stress. The mechanism of protection involves a direct interaction with the NAD(P)H oxidase pathway and seems to be completely independent of the eNOS pathway.

Simulating blood flow in microvessels is a major challenge because of the numerous blood cells suspended in the blood. Furthermore, red blood cells (RBCs), which constitute 45% of the total blood volume, are highly deformable. RBCs deformation and RBC-RBC interactions determine the complex rheology of the blood. In this research, we simulate the blood flow in periodic two dimensional channels and conduct numerical experiments on the cell-free layer which appears near the wall. We use the boundary integral method and the smooth particle mesh Ewald method to represent the blood flow, and cells are modeled as deformable capsules. In the numerical experiments, we examine four possible mechanisms that may contribute to the cell-free layer: RBC deformation, RBC aggregation, configuration constraint, and the lubrication mechanism. Our simulations correctly represent hemodynamic phenomena such as the blunt velocity profile and the Fåhræus effect. We observed that more deformable RBCs migrate more away from the wall, and, consequently, the thickness of the cell-free layer increases. However, RBC aggregation increased the cell-free layer thickness by only 5%. In the experiment on the configuration constraint, no cell-free "layer" was detected when we removed cells which intersected an artificial constraint in the microvessel. In the last experiment on the lubrication mechanism, the cell-free layer disappeared at a no-shear stress boundary, and the hematocrit profile was similar to that in the constraint test. Therefore, this research clearly shows that the cell-free layer is generated by the lateral migration of deformable RBCs due to the lubrication mechanism. / text

Tissue engineering is a rapidly growing field which seeks to provide alternatives to organ transplantation in order to address the increasing need for transplantable tissues. One huge hurdle in this effort is the provision of thick tissues; this hurdle exists because currently there is no way to provide prevascularized or rapidly vascularizable scaffolds. To design thick, vascularized tissues, scaffolds are needed that can induce vessels which are similar to the microvasculature found in normal tissues. Angiogenic biomaterials are being developed to provide useful scaffolds to address this problem. In this thesis angiogenic and cell signaling and adhesion factors were incorporated into a biomimetic poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) hydrogel system. The composition of these hydrogels was precisely tuned to induce the formation of differing vessel morphology. To sensitively measure induced microvascular morphology and to compare it to native microvessels in several tissues, this thesis developed an image-based tool for quantification of scale invariant and classical measures of vessel morphology. The tool displayed great utility in the comparison of native vessels and remodeling vessels in normal tissues. To utilize this tool to tune the vessel response in vivo , Flk1::myr-mCherry fluorescently labeled mice were implanted with Platelet Derived Growth Factor-BB (PDGF-BB) and basic Fibroblast Growth Factor (FGF-2) containing PEG-based hydrogels in a modified mouse corneal angiogenesis assay. Resulting vessels were imaged with confocal microscopy, analyzed with the image based tool created in this thesis to compare morphological differences between treatment groups, and used to create a linear relationship between space filling parameters and dose of growth factor release. Morphological parameters of native mouse tissue vessels were then compared to the linear fit to calculate the dose of growth factors needed to induce vessels similar in morphology to native vessels. Resulting induced vessels did match in morphology to the target vessels. Several other covalently bound signals were then analyzed in the assay and resulting morphology of vessels was compared in several studies which further highlighted the utility of the micropocket assay in conjunction with the image based tool for vessel morphological quantification. Finally, an alternative method to provide rapid vasculature to the constructs, which relied on pre-seeded hydrogels encapsulated endothelial cells was also developed and shown to allow anastamosis between induced host vessels and the implanted construct within 48 hours. These results indicate great promise in the rational design of synthetic, bioactive hydrogels, which can be used as a platform to study microvascular induction for regenerative medicine and angiogenesis research. Future applications of this research may help to develop therapeutic strategies to ameliorate human disease by replacing organs or correcting vessel morphology in the case of ischemic diseases and cancer.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Virginia, 2008. / Includes bibliographical references. Also available in electronic form as viewed 2/16/2009.

La douleur chronique (DC) est un trouble sensoriel complexe caractérisé par des changements structurels, c'est-à-dire par des réarrangements anatomiques sévères du cortex somatosensoriel et des changements fonctionnels, à savoir des anomalies dans la connectivité fonctionnelle du réseau et la transmission de l'information au niveau du circuit thalamo-cortical. Structurellement, dans chaque module cortical, une unité morpho-fonctionnelle peut être reconnue, appelée unité neuro-gliale-vasculaire, où les cellules gliales représentent les structures de pontage permettant le transfert de métabolites et d'oxygène aux neurones. La dépendance fonctionnelle entre les éléments neuronaux et vasculaires, explorée en grande partie par microscopies confocale 3D et biphotonique a élargi le concept de l'espace synaptique en une forme plus complexe, appelé «synapse tripartite», où malgré la présence de neurones pré et post-synaptiques, un composant glial est ajouté face au contexte microvasculaire. Il semble donc correct d'analyser les effets microscopiques corticaux de l'image macroscopique. Des études récentes de notre groupe ont traité de l'origine et l'évolution de la DC dans des modèles expérimentaux de rat DC (Seltzer) grâce à des analyses microstructurales et fonctionnelles axées sur le substrat neuronal corticale et les propriétés micromorphologiques et vasculodynamiques du sang. La microarchitecture du réseau vasculaire cortical a été révélée via la microtomographie par rayonnement X synchrotron aux lignes ID17 et ID16A (ESRF, Grenoble) ainsi qu’à la ligne TOMCAT (SLS, Villigen). S’en est suivi une analyse morphométrique du réseau vasculaire 3D par squelettisation et transformation du graphe spatial. Ensuite, une étude comparative "Neuropathique vs Contrôle", basée sur les propriétés du réseau vasculaire (nombre de vaisseaux, points de branche, segments de squelette et diamètre du vaisseau) a montré des changements évidents dans les compartiments microvasculaires corticaux: une augmentation généralisée des micro-vaisseaux et des capillaires sanguins dans les régions étudiées (cortex somatosensoriel SS1) caractérisent tous les rats DC. Parallèlement, une réduction du diamètre moyen des vaisseaux des rats DC prouve que les capillaires et les microvaisseaux ont une affinité prédominante pour ces événements angiogénétiques. L'évolution de la néogénèse est très présente dès la première étape de la neuropathie (2 semaines), puis diminue mais persiste durant la dernière étape considérée (6 mois). En outre, un flux sanguin maximal accru a été trouvé dans l'état de DC, indiquant que les réseaux vasculaires DC sont compatibles avec un flux enrichi soutenu par l'angiogenèse. Ces résultats provenant de la micro et nanotomographie ont été confirmés via microscopie en immunofluorescence: les échantillons DC ont montré la positivité à trois marqueurs de néogénèse vasculaire (VEGFR1, VEGFR2 et VWF). En parallèle, pour analyser fonctionnellement la genèse et l'évolution des circuits thalamo-corticaux dans les conditions de DC, l'activité neurale a été enregistrée par une matrice de 32 microélectrodes implantée dans le cerveau, recevant simultanément des signaux du noyau thalamique VPL et du cortex SS1. Tous les rats DC montrent des troubles de connectivité révélés aussi par l'évolution de la topologie du réseau de «Modules et Hubs» à une organisation «aléatoire» où les connexions fonctionnelles intra et intercommunautaires diminuent. Ces résultats confirment comment la dynamique neuronale est liée à l'activité vasculaire: les événements néo-génétiques des microvaisseaux corticaux dans la DC sont fortement corrélés aux anomalies fonctionnelles de la dynamique des réseaux neuronaux. L'implication microvasculaire dans la DC ouvre une nouvelle façon de l’interpréter, non seulement reconnue comme pathologie sensorielle, mais aussi comme une maladie neurologique où les réseaux de connectivité neuronale et vasculaire sont largement impliqués dans le système. / Chronic pain (CP) is a complex sensory disorder characterized by structural changes, i.e. severe anatomical rearrangements of somatosensory cortex, and functional changes, i.e. anomalies in network functional connectivity and in information transmission at the level of thalamo-cortical circuit. From the structural point of view, within each cortical module, a morpho-functional unit can be recognized, also called neuro-glial-vascular unit, where the glial cells represent the bridging structures allowing for the transfer of metabolites and oxygen to neurons. Namely, the functional dependency between neuronal and vascular elements, largely explored by 3D confocal microscopy and two photon microscopy, has expanded the concept of synaptic space to a more complex form, indicated as “tripartite synapse”, where besides the presence of the pre- and post- synaptic neurons, a glial component is added facing on the microvascular context. Due to this dependency it appears, thus, correct to analyse the cortical microscopical effects of the macroscopical picture. Novel studies by our group have recently investigated CP origin and evolution in experimental CP rat models (Seltzer) through microstructural and functional analyses focused both on the cortical neuronal substrate and the blood micromorphological and vasculodynamic properties. The 3D microarchitecture of cortical vascular network has been revealed by means of synchrotron X-ray micro Computed Tomography (CT) at the ID17 and ID16A beamlines (ESRF, Grenoble) and the TOMCAT beamline (SLS, Villigen). A subsequent morphometric analysis of the 3D vascular network has been implemented by means of skeletonization and spatial graph transformation. Then, a comparative study “Neuropathic vs Control”, based on the estimated vascular network properties (number of vessels, branch points, skeleton segments and vessel diameter), showed evident changes in cortical microvascular compartments: a widespread increase of blood microvessels and capillaries in the investigated regions (the somatosensory [SSI] cortical area) has been found in all CP rats. In parallel, a reduced mean value of vessel diameter in all CP rats prove that capillaries and small microvessels are predominantly interested by these angiogenetic events. By investigating the time evolution of the neogenesis, it appears strongly present since the first stage of the neuropathy (2 weeks), fading away, but still present, during the last time stage considered (6 months). In addition, an increased maximum blood flow, sustained by the vascular network, has been found in CP condition, indicating that CP vascular networks are compatible with an enriched blood flow sustained by the promoted novel angiogenesis. These results from micro- and nano-tomography have been further confirmed also by immunofluorescence microscopy analysis: CP samples have shown the positivity to three markers of vascular neo-genesis (VEGFR1, VEGFR2 and VWF). In parallel, to functionally analyse the genesis and the evolution of the thalamo-cortical circuits in CP conditions, the neural activity has been recorded by means of 32-microelectrode matrices implanted in the brain, simultaneously receiving signals from the VPL thalamic nucleus and the SS1 cortex. All the CP groups show connectivity disorders exhibited also by the evolution of the network topology from “Modules and Hubs” to a “random” network organisation where the intra-community and inter-community functional connections decrease. These results clearly confirm how the neuronal dynamics is strictly linked to the vascular activity: the cortical microvessel neo-genetic events in CP are strongly correlated to the functional anomalies in neuronal network dynamic. The microvascular involvement in CP opens a new way of interpretation of CP disease, not only recognized as sensory pathology, but also as a neurological disease where neuronal and vascular connectivity networks are extensively involved in the whole system.

Rupture of atherosclerotic plaque is one of the primary causes of death due to cardiovascular disease. The factors directing plaque progression to instability are poorly understood. It is well-known that arteries respond to changes in mechanical stress by remodeling, and that remodeling is mediated by the inflammatory response. Studies have shown that both mechanical stress and markers of inflammation are increased in the fibrous cap and shoulder regions of plaque, where rupture most often occurs. In this study we hypothesized that there are spatial relationships between the local mechanical environment and expression of markers of inflammation in atherosclerosis, and that these relationships are plaque-progression dependent. To test these hypotheses, we analyzed cross-sections at intervals along the length of human coronary atherosclerotic arteries. For each cross-section, a heterogeneous finite element model was developed to determine the spatial distribution of stress. In addition, novel techniques for quantifying inflammatory markers at high spatial resolution were used to determine the distributions of inflammatory markers. The distributions of stress and five markers of inflammation activated NF-kB, macrophages, MMP-1, nitrotyrosine, and microvessels - were then compared to determine whether spatial relationships exists. We demonstrated that the probability of activated NF-kB expression increases monotonically with increasing stress in all stages of plaque progression. This indicates that the relationship between mechanical stress and NF-kB activation is a player throughout the disease process. We found that the relationship between mechanical stress and macrophages is highly dependent on the state of plaque progression. In intermediate stages of progression macrophages increase with moderate stress but drop off again at very high stresses, while in the advanced stage macrophages continue to increase monotonically with stress. We found that MMP1 increases with stress in stages of progression where active remodeling is occurring, but decreases with stress in mature stable plaque. We found no relationship between mechanical stress and nitrotyrosine expression or microvessels. Taken together, these results support the role of mechanical stress in instigating and maintaining the inflammatory response, and help explain how mechanical input is able to direct the complex biological changes involved in remodeling.

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