A large area time of flight (TOF) detector based on multi-gap resistive plate chamber (MRPC) technology has been developed for the STAR (Solenoidal Tracker at RHIC) experiment at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider at the Brookhaven National Laboratory, New York. The TOF detector replaces STAR's Central Trigger Barrel detector with 120 trays, each with 32 MRPCs. Each MRPC has 6 channels. The TOF detector improves by a factor of about 2 STAR's particle identification reach in transverse momenta and enhances STARs physics research program.

Neste trabalho foram realizadas, no Laboratório Pelletron do Instituto de Física da Universidade de São Paulo, medidas de coincidência entre partículas com momentos relativos pequenos para os sistemas 160+10B e 160+ 12C nas energias de 62,5 e 64,0 MeV, respectivamente. Para isso, foi utilizado um hodoscópio composto de 14 telescópios do tipo E-E, capazes de medir a energia tanto de partículas pesadas (Z>2) como leves (Z2). A partir dessas medidas foram obtidos espectros de diferença dos módulos das velocidades (vdif) e funções correlação em momento relativo (prel) para vários pa res de partículas. A análise do espectro de vdif permite determinar a proporção relativa entre as duas seqüências de emissão possíveis para um dado par de partículas. A região da anticorrelação na função correlação permite obter informações sobre a escala temporal referente ao intervalo de tempo entre a emissão da primeira e da segunda partícula. Para o ajuste tanto do espectro de vdif como da função correlação foi utilizado um programa que simula a emissão sequencial de duas partículas a partir de um núcleo composto, no qual a fração das sequências de emissão e a escala temporal são parâmetros ajustáveis. Correlações envolvendo somente partículas leves forneceram resultados para as escalas temporais da ordem de 10-20 s a 10-19 s, compatíveis com evaporação sequencial de um núcleo composto. Correlações envolvendo partículas leves e pesadas forneceram escalas temporais da ordem de 10-20s compatíveis com a fissão de núcleos residuais após a emissão de uma partícula leve. / Particle-particle correlation measurements at small relative momenta for the 160+10B and 160+ 12C systems at Elab = 62.5 and 64 MeV, respectively, were performed at the University of São Paulo - Pelletron Laboratory. The experimental setup consisted of a hodoscope composed by fourteen triple telescopes which provide the energy for both light (Z 2 ) and heavy (Z>2) particles. Velocity difference (vdifl) spectra a nd correlation functions at small relative momenta were obtained for many particle pairs. The velocity difference spectrum provides information about the emission order for the particles. The anticorrelation region in the correlation function provides information about the time between the first and second emission. A simulation code that calculates sequencial emission from a compound nucleus and for which the emission order and time scale are parameters was used to fit both the vdiff spectrum and the correlation function. The time scales obtained for light particle correlations are between 10-20 and 10-19 s and they are in agreement with predictions for the evaporation of compound nuclei. Correlations between light and heavy particles give time scales of about 10 -20 which are compatible with fission of the residual nuclei after a light particle emission.

Chirality is a nuclear symmetry which is suggested to occur in nuclei when the total angular momentum of the system has an aplanar orientation [Fra97, Fra01]. It can occur for nuclei with triaxial shape, which have valence protons and neutrons with predominantly particle and hole nature. It is expected that the angular momenta of an odd particle and an odd hole (both occupying high-j orbitals) are aligned predominantly along the short and the long axes of the nucleus respectively, whereas the collective rotation occurs predominantly around the intermediate axis of a triaxially deformed nucleus in order to minimize the total energy of the system. Such symmetry is expected to be exhibited by a pair of degenerate DI = 1 rotational bands, i.e. all properties of the partner bands should be identical. The results suggested that spin independence of the energy staggering parameter S(I ) within two-quasiparticle chiral bands (previously suggested a fingerprint of chirality) is found only if the Coriolis interaction can be completely neglected. However, if the configuration is nonrestricted, the Coriolis interaction is often strong enough to create considerable energy staggering. It was also found that staggering in the intra- and inter-band B(M1) reduced transition probabilities (proposed as another fingerprint of chirality) may be a result of effects other than strongly broken chirality. Therefore, the use of the B(M1) staggering as a fingerprint of strongly broken chiral symmetry seems rather risky, in particular if the phase of the staggering is not checked.

Chirality is a nuclear symmetry which is suggested to occur in nuclei when the total angular momentum of the system has an aplanar orientation [Fra97, Fra01]. It can occur for nuclei with triaxial shape, which have valence protons and neutrons with predominantly particle and hole nature. It is expected that the angular momenta of an odd particle and an odd hole (both occupying high-j orbitals) are aligned predominantly along the short and the long axes of the nucleus respectively, whereas the collective rotation occurs predominantly around the intermediate axis of a triaxially deformed nucleus in order to minimize the total energy of the system. Such symmetry is expected to be exhibited by a pair of degenerate DI = 1 rotational bands, i.e. all properties of the partner bands should be identical. The results suggested that spin independence of the energy staggering parameter S(I ) within two-quasiparticle chiral bands (previously suggested a fingerprint of chirality) is found only if the Coriolis interaction can be completely neglected. However, if the configuration is nonrestricted, the Coriolis interaction is often strong enough to create considerable energy staggering. It was also found that staggering in the intra- and inter-band B(M1) reduced transition probabilities (proposed as another fingerprint of chirality) may be a result of effects other than strongly broken chirality. Therefore, the use of the B(M1) staggering as a fingerprint of strongly broken chiral symmetry seems rather risky, in particular if the phase of the staggering is not checked.

Neste trabalho foram realizadas, no Laboratório Pelletron do Instituto de Física da Universidade de São Paulo, medidas de coincidência entre partículas com momentos relativos pequenos para os sistemas 160+10B e 160+ 12C nas energias de 62,5 e 64,0 MeV, respectivamente. Para isso, foi utilizado um hodoscópio composto de 14 telescópios do tipo E-E, capazes de medir a energia tanto de partículas pesadas (Z>2) como leves (Z2). A partir dessas medidas foram obtidos espectros de diferença dos módulos das velocidades (vdif) e funções correlação em momento relativo (prel) para vários pa res de partículas. A análise do espectro de vdif permite determinar a proporção relativa entre as duas seqüências de emissão possíveis para um dado par de partículas. A região da anticorrelação na função correlação permite obter informações sobre a escala temporal referente ao intervalo de tempo entre a emissão da primeira e da segunda partícula. Para o ajuste tanto do espectro de vdif como da função correlação foi utilizado um programa que simula a emissão sequencial de duas partículas a partir de um núcleo composto, no qual a fração das sequências de emissão e a escala temporal são parâmetros ajustáveis. Correlações envolvendo somente partículas leves forneceram resultados para as escalas temporais da ordem de 10-20 s a 10-19 s, compatíveis com evaporação sequencial de um núcleo composto. Correlações envolvendo partículas leves e pesadas forneceram escalas temporais da ordem de 10-20s compatíveis com a fissão de núcleos residuais após a emissão de uma partícula leve. / Particle-particle correlation measurements at small relative momenta for the 160+10B and 160+ 12C systems at Elab = 62.5 and 64 MeV, respectively, were performed at the University of São Paulo - Pelletron Laboratory. The experimental setup consisted of a hodoscope composed by fourteen triple telescopes which provide the energy for both light (Z 2 ) and heavy (Z>2) particles. Velocity difference (vdifl) spectra a nd correlation functions at small relative momenta were obtained for many particle pairs. The velocity difference spectrum provides information about the emission order for the particles. The anticorrelation region in the correlation function provides information about the time between the first and second emission. A simulation code that calculates sequencial emission from a compound nucleus and for which the emission order and time scale are parameters was used to fit both the vdiff spectrum and the correlation function. The time scales obtained for light particle correlations are between 10-20 and 10-19 s and they are in agreement with predictions for the evaporation of compound nuclei. Correlations between light and heavy particles give time scales of about 10 -20 which are compatible with fission of the residual nuclei after a light particle emission.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / Chirality is a nuclear symmetry which is suggested to occur in nuclei when the total angular momentum of the system has an aplanar orientation [Fra97, Fra01]. It can occur for nuclei with triaxial shape, which have valence protons and neutrons with predominantly particle and hole nature. It is expected that the angular momenta of an odd particle and an odd hole (both occupying high-j orbitals) are aligned predominantly along the short and the long axes of the nucleus respectively, whereas the collective rotation occurs predominantly around the intermediate axis of a triaxially deformed nucleus in order to minimize the total energy of the system. Such symmetry is expected to be exhibited by a pair of degenerate DI = 1 rotational bands, i.e. all properties of the partner bands should be identical. The results suggested that spin independence of the energy staggering parameter S(I ) within two-quasiparticle chiral bands (previously suggested a fingerprint of chirality) is found only if the Coriolis interaction can be completely neglected. However, if the configuration is nonrestricted, the Coriolis interaction is often strong enough to create considerable energy staggering. It was also found that staggering in the intra- and inter-band B(M1) reduced transition probabilities (proposed as another fingerprint of chirality) may be a result of effects other than strongly broken chirality. Therefore, the use of the B(M1) staggering as a fingerprint of strongly broken chiral symmetry seems rather risky, in particular if the phase of the staggering is not checked. / South Africa

Optical microcavities (OMs) are receiving increasing attention owing to their potential applications ranging from cavity quantum electrodynamics, optical detection to photonic devices. Recently, rolled-up structures have been demonstrated as OMs which have gained considerable attention owing to their excellent customizability. To fully exploit this customizability, asymmetric and topological rolled-up OMs are proposed and investigated in addition to conventional rolled-up OMs in this thesis. By doing so, novel phenomena and applications are demonstrated in OMs. The fabrication of conventional rolled-up OMs is presented in details. Then, dynamic mode tuning by a near-field probe is performed on a conventional rolled-up OM. Next, mode splitting in rolled-up OMs is investigated. The effect of single nanoparticles on mode splitting in a rolled-up OM is studied. Because of a non-synchronized oscillating shift for different azimuthal split modes induced by a single nanoparticle at different positions, the position of the nanoparticle can be determined on the rolled-up OM. Moreover, asymmetric rolled-up OMs are fabricated for the purpose of introducing coupling between spin and orbital angular momenta (SOC) of light into OMs. Elliptically polarized modes are observed due to the SOC of light. Modes with an elliptical polarization can also be modeled as coupling between the linearly polarized TE and TM mode in asymmetric rolled-up OMs. Furthermore, by adding a helical geometry to rolled-up structures, Berry phase of light is introduced into OMs. A -π Berry phase is generated for light in topological rolled-up OMs so that modes have a half-integer number of wavelengths. In order to obtain a deeper understanding for existing rolled-up OMs and to develop the new type of rolled-up OMs, complete theoretical models are also presented in this thesis.

Le domaine des systèmes de référence quantiques, dont les dernière avancées sont brièvement présentées au chapitre 1, est extrêmement pertinent à la compréhension de la dégradation des états quantiques et de l’évolution d’instruments de mesures quantiques. Toutefois, pour arriver à comprendre formellement ces avancées et à apporter une contribution originale au domaine, il faut s’approprier un certain nombre de concepts physiques et mathématiques, in- troduits au chapitre 2. La dégradation des états quantiques est très présente dans le contrôle d’états utiles à l’informatique quantique. Étant donné que ce dernier tente de contrôler des sys- tèmes à deux états, le plus souvent des moments cinétiques, l’analyse des systèmes de référence quantiques qui les mesurent s’avère opportune. Puisque, parmi les plus petits moments ciné- tiques, le plus connu est de s = 1 et que son état le plus simple est l’état non polarisé, l’étude 2 du comportement d’un système de référence mesurant successivement ce type de moments ci- nétiques constitue le premier pas à franchir. C’est dans le chapitre 3 qu’est fait ce premier pas et il aborde les questions les plus intéressantes, soit celles concernant l’efficacité du système de référence, sa longévité et leur maximum. La prochaine étape est de considérer des états de moments cinétiques polarisés et généraux, étape qui est abordée dans le chapitre 4. Cette fois, l’analyse de la dégradation du système de référence est un peu plus complexe et nous pouvons l’inspecter approximativement par l’évolution de certains paramètres pour une certaine classe d’états de système de référence. De plus, il existe une interaction entre le système de référence et le moment cinétique qui peut avoir un effet sur le système de référence tout à fait comparable à l’effet de la mesure. C’est cette même interaction qui est étudiée dans le chapitre 5, mais, cette fois, pour des moments cinétiques de s = 1. Après une comparaison avec la mesure, il devient manifeste que les ressemblances entre les deux processus sont beaucoup moins apparentes, voire inexistantes. Ainsi, cette ressemblance ne semble pas générale et semble accidentelle lorsqu’elle apparaît. / The field of quantum reference frames, which recent progress is briefly presented in chap- ter 1, is extremely relevant when it comes to understanding the deterioration of quantum states and the evolution of quantum measurement instruments. However, to fully understand these advances and to be able to bring an original contribution to this field, one must first understand a number of concepts in physics and mathematics. These concepts are explained in chapter 2. Since the deterioration of quantum states is very present when controlling useful states in quan- tum computing, and since quantum computing attempts to control two-states systems, often angular momenta, analyzing quantum reference frames proves to be relevant. Having s = 1 as 2 the smallest known angular momentum, and since its simplest state is the unpolarized state, the study of a reference frame behavior that measures successively this type of angular momentums is the first step to be taken (chapter 3). The most interesting questions concern the efficiency of the reference frame, its longevity, and the optimization of these two quantities. The next step is to consider polarized and general angular momentum states (chapter 4). This time, analyzing the deterioration of the reference frame proves to be more complex, and can be examined in an approximate manner by looking at the evolution of certain parameters given for a certain class of states of reference frames. Furthermore, the existence of an interaction between the reference frame and the angular momentum can affect the reference frame approximatively as much as the measuring it does. It is this very interaction that is studied in chapter 5, but this time, for s = 1 angular momenta. Comparing this interaction with the measurement shows very clearly that the similarities between the two processes are a lot less visible than with s = 1 , and 2 even perhaps nonexistent. Therefore, the similarity does not seem to be general and appears to be accidental when it is significant.

Le domaine des systèmes de référence quantiques, dont les dernière avancées sont brièvement présentées au chapitre 1, est extrêmement pertinent à la compréhension de la dégradation des états quantiques et de l’évolution d’instruments de mesures quantiques. Toutefois, pour arriver à comprendre formellement ces avancées et à apporter une contribution originale au domaine, il faut s’approprier un certain nombre de concepts physiques et mathématiques, in- troduits au chapitre 2. La dégradation des états quantiques est très présente dans le contrôle d’états utiles à l’informatique quantique. Étant donné que ce dernier tente de contrôler des sys- tèmes à deux états, le plus souvent des moments cinétiques, l’analyse des systèmes de référence quantiques qui les mesurent s’avère opportune. Puisque, parmi les plus petits moments ciné- tiques, le plus connu est de s = 1 et que son état le plus simple est l’état non polarisé, l’étude 2 du comportement d’un système de référence mesurant successivement ce type de moments ci- nétiques constitue le premier pas à franchir. C’est dans le chapitre 3 qu’est fait ce premier pas et il aborde les questions les plus intéressantes, soit celles concernant l’efficacité du système de référence, sa longévité et leur maximum. La prochaine étape est de considérer des états de moments cinétiques polarisés et généraux, étape qui est abordée dans le chapitre 4. Cette fois, l’analyse de la dégradation du système de référence est un peu plus complexe et nous pouvons l’inspecter approximativement par l’évolution de certains paramètres pour une certaine classe d’états de système de référence. De plus, il existe une interaction entre le système de référence et le moment cinétique qui peut avoir un effet sur le système de référence tout à fait comparable à l’effet de la mesure. C’est cette même interaction qui est étudiée dans le chapitre 5, mais, cette fois, pour des moments cinétiques de s = 1. Après une comparaison avec la mesure, il devient manifeste que les ressemblances entre les deux processus sont beaucoup moins apparentes, voire inexistantes. Ainsi, cette ressemblance ne semble pas générale et semble accidentelle lorsqu’elle apparaît. / The field of quantum reference frames, which recent progress is briefly presented in chap- ter 1, is extremely relevant when it comes to understanding the deterioration of quantum states and the evolution of quantum measurement instruments. However, to fully understand these advances and to be able to bring an original contribution to this field, one must first understand a number of concepts in physics and mathematics. These concepts are explained in chapter 2. Since the deterioration of quantum states is very present when controlling useful states in quan- tum computing, and since quantum computing attempts to control two-states systems, often angular momenta, analyzing quantum reference frames proves to be relevant. Having s = 1 as 2 the smallest known angular momentum, and since its simplest state is the unpolarized state, the study of a reference frame behavior that measures successively this type of angular momentums is the first step to be taken (chapter 3). The most interesting questions concern the efficiency of the reference frame, its longevity, and the optimization of these two quantities. The next step is to consider polarized and general angular momentum states (chapter 4). This time, analyzing the deterioration of the reference frame proves to be more complex, and can be examined in an approximate manner by looking at the evolution of certain parameters given for a certain class of states of reference frames. Furthermore, the existence of an interaction between the reference frame and the angular momentum can affect the reference frame approximatively as much as the measuring it does. It is this very interaction that is studied in chapter 5, but this time, for s = 1 angular momenta. Comparing this interaction with the measurement shows very clearly that the similarities between the two processes are a lot less visible than with s = 1 , and 2 even perhaps nonexistent. Therefore, the similarity does not seem to be general and appears to be accidental when it is significant.

We study point particles to illustrate the various symmetries such as the Poincaré group and its non-relativistic version. In order to find the Noether charges and the Noether currents, which are conserved under physical symmetries, we study Noether’s theorem. We describe the Pauli-Lubanski spin vector, which is invariant under the Poincaré group and describes the spin of a particle in field theory. By promoting the Pauli-Lubanski spin vector to an operator in the quantized theory we will see that it describes the spin of a particle. Moreover, we find an action for a smooth spinning bosonic particle by compactifying one string dimension together with one embedding dimension. As with the Pauli-Lubanski spin vector, we need to quantize this action to confirm that it is the action for a smooth spinning particle. / Vi studerar punktpartiklar för att illustrera olika symemtrier som t.ex. Poincaré gruppen och dess icke-relativistiska version. För att hitta de Noether laddningar och Noether strömmar, vilka är bevarade under symmetrier, studerar vi Noether’s sats. Vi beskriver Pauli-Lubanksi spin vektorn, vilken har en invarians under Poincaré gruppen och beskriver spin hos en partikel i fältteori. Genom att låta Pauli-Lubanski spin vektorn agera på ett tillstånd i kvantfältteori ser vi att den beskriver spin hos en partikel. Dessutom finner vi en verkan för en spinnande partikel genom att kompaktifiera en bosonisk sträng dimension tillsammans med en inbäddad dimension. Som med Pauli-Lubanski spin vektorn, kvantiserar vi denna verkan för att bekräfta att det är en verkan för en spinnande partikel.