The present work focuses on two strategies contributing to the development of high efficiency, cost-effective photovoltaic (PV) technology for renewable energy generation: the design of new materials offering enhanced opto-electronic performance and the investigation of material degradation processes and their role in predicting the long-term reliability of PV modules in the field. The first portion of the present work investigates the integration of a novel CdTe-ZnO nanocomposite material as a spectral sensitizer component within a thin-film, hybrid heterojunction (HJ) PV device structure. Quantum-scale semiconductors have the potential to improve PV device performance through enhanced spectral absorption and photocarrier transport. This is realized via appropriate design of the semiconductor nanophase (providing tunable spectral absorption) and its spatial distribution within an electrically active matrix (providing long-range charge transport). Here, CdTe nanocrystals, embedded in an electrically active ZnO matrix, form a nanocomposite (NC) offering control of both spectral absorption and photocarrier transport behavior through the manipulation of nanophase assembly (ensemble effects). A sequential radio- frequency (RF) magnetron sputter deposition technique affords the control of semiconductor nanophase spatial distribution relative to the HJ plane in a hybrid, ZnO-P3HT test structure. Energy conversion performance (current density-voltage (J-V) and external quantum efficiency (EQE) response) was examined as a function of the location of the CdTe nanophase absorber region using both one dimensional solar cell capacitance simulator (SCAPS) and the experimental examination of analogous P3HT-ZnO based hybrid thin films. Enhancement in simulated EQE over a spectral range consistent with the absorption region of the CdTe nanophase (i.e. 400–475 nm) is confirmed in the experimental studies. Moreover, a trend of decreasing quantum efficiency in this spectral range with increasing separation between the CdTe nanophase region and the heterojunction plane is observed. The results are interpreted in terms of carrier scattering/recombination length mitigating the successful transport of carriers across the junction. The second portion of the research addresses the need for robust PV performance in commercial module as a primary contributor to cost-effective operation in both distributed systems and utility scale generation systems. The understanding of physical and chemical mechanisms resulting in the degradation of materials of construction used in PV modules is needed to understand the contribution of these processes to module integrity and performance loss with time under varied application environments. In this context, the second part of present study addresses microcracking in Si–an established degradation process contributing to PV module power loss. The study isolates microcrack propagation in single-crystal Si, and investigates the effect of local environment (temperature, humidity) on microcrack elongation under applied strains. An investigation of microindenter-induced crack evolution with independent variation of both temperature and vapor density was pursued in PV-grade Si wafers. Under static tensile strain conditions, an increase in sub-critical crack elongation with increasing atmospheric water content was observed. To provide further insight into the potential physical and chemical conditions at the microcrack tip, micro-Raman measurements were performed. Preliminary results confirm a spatial variation in the frequency of the primary Si vibrational resonance within the crack-tip region, associated with local stress state, whose magnitude is influenced by environmental conditions during the period of applied static strain. The experimental effort was paired with molecular dynamics (MD) investigations of microcrack evolution in single-crystal Si to furnish additional insight into mechanical contributions to crack elongation. The MD results demonstrate that crack-tip energetics and associated cracking crystal planes and morphology are intimately related to the crack and applied strain orientations with respect to the principal crystallographic axes. The resulting fracture surface energy and the stress-strain response of the Si under these conditions form the basis for preliminary micro-scale peridynamics (PD) simulations of microcrack development under constant applied strain. These efforts were integrated with the experimental results to further inform the mechanisms contributing to this important degradation mode in Si-based photovoltaics.

One of two project reports: The other part is designated PART B: OFF-CAMPUS PROJECT. / <p> Ion implantation is investigated as a technique to fabricate solar cells on monocrystalline silicon. The electrical properties of the implanted layer, as determined using the Hall Effect, and solar cell performance have beep studied for varying implant species (As and P), implanted dopant concentration (10^18 - 10^21 cm^-3), implanted substrate temperature (55° to 300°K} and annealing temperature (700° to 900°C). Some progress has been made toward the optimization of the various parameters. </p> / Thesis / Master of Engineering (MEngr)

Σκοπός της παρούσης διπλωματικής είναι η σύγκριση της απόδοσης και του κόστους μιας τυπικής αυτόνομης φωτοβολταϊκής εγκατάστασης σε παραδοσιακή κατοικία χρησιμοποιώντας φωτοβολταϊκά πλαίσια μονοκρυσταλλικού πυριτίου ή δισεληνοϊνδιούχου χαλκού (CIS) τεχνολογίας thin – film . Για την εξαγωγή συμπερασμάτων πραγματοποιήθηκαν μετρήσεις σε φωτοβολταϊκά πλαίσια των παραπάνω τεχνολογιών κατά την διάρκεια ενός έτους. Οι μετρήσεις ξεκίνησαν τον Οκτώβριο του 2009 και τελείωσαν τον Σεπτέμβριο του 2010. Έλαβαν χώρα στο Τμήμα Ηλεκτρολόγων Μηχανικών και Τεχνολογίας Υπολογιστών του Πανεπιστημίου Πατρών. Κατά μέσο όρο γίνονταν μετρήσεις δύο φορές κάθε μήνα και σκοπός ήταν να καλύψουμε τουλάχιστον μία περίπτωση συννεφιασμένης και μία ηλιόλουστης ημέρας του μήνα ώστε να έχουμε αρκετά δεδομένα προς επεξεργασία . Ο προσανατολισμός των πλαισίων ήταν προς το Νότο όπου, λόγω του ότι η Ελλάδα βρίσκεται στο Βόρειο ημισφαίριο, έχουμε περισσότερη ηλιακή ακτινοβολία. Διεξήχθησαν μετρήσεις σε διαφορετικές κλίσεις και για τα δύο φωτοβολταϊκά πλαίσια ώστε να υπολογιστεί και η βέλτιστη κλίση για κάθε εποχή . Στις μετρήσεις τα δεδομένα που λαμβάναμε ήταν η μέγιστη ισχύς, το ρεύμα βραχυκύκλωσης, η τάση ανοιχτοκυκλώσεως, η θερμοκρασία πλαισίου, καθώς και η ηλιακή ακτινοβολία. Με αυτά τα δεδομένα υπολογίσαμε τον βαθμό απόδοσης και τον συντελεστή ποιότητας για το κάθε φωτοβολταϊκό πλαίσιο. Τα συμπεράσματα στα οποία καταλήξαμε αναφέρουν την βέλτιστη κλίση για τοποθέτηση φωτοβολταϊκών πλαισίων για βέλτιστη ετήσια παραγωγή ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας. Έγιναν παρατηρήσεις σχετικά με την διαφορά των πειραματικών τιμών που πήραμε, με τις θεωρητικές που δίνουν οι κατασκευαστές για τα φωτοβολταϊκά πλαίσια. Συγκρίναμε το κόστος και την απόδοση μιας εγκατάστασης φωτοβολταϊκών πλαισίων σε παραδοσιακή κατοικία με τους δύο τύπους φωτοβολταϊκών λαμβάνοντας υπόψη και ειδικές παραμέτρους της εγκατάστασης που μπορεί να αποτελούν πρόβλημα (π.χ. επάρκεια χώρου, μέγεθος εγκατάστασης) και προτείναμε λύσεις για εξοικονόμηση ενέργειας σε μια τέτοια κατοικία. / The objective of this diploma thesis is to calculate and compare the efficiency and the cost of a typical photovoltaic installation on a traditional house using photovoltaic modules based on monocrystalline silicon or CIS thin film modules. In order to provide helpful information to PV system installers extensive outdoor testing of a c-Si and a CIS module under varying meteorological conditions have been realized throughout a whole year. The measurements started in October of 2009 and finished in September of 2010. The modules where installed on the roof of the building of the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering of the University of Patras, Greece (latitude 38ο). We have realized an average of two measurements per month in order to cover at least one sunny and one cloudy day each month until the data was enough for processing. The orientation of the modules was south since Greece is a country of the northern hemisphere and we had more solar radiation there. We have realized measurements in different tilt angles for both modules in order to define the optimal tilt angle for each season. During the measurements the data we have received was the peak power, the short circuit current, the open circuit voltage, the module temperature and the solar radiation. Based on the gathered data we have calculated the fill factor and the efficiency for each module. The conclusions show the optimal tilt angle of the modules for optimal energy yield per year. Comparison have been made between the experimental and the theoretical values given by the manufacturers of the modules. We have also compared the cost and the efficiency of a typical photovoltaic installation on a traditional house using the two different types of modules and we suggested solutions for less energy consumption.

abstract: Polycrystalline CdS/CdTe solar cells continue to dominate the thin-film photovoltaics industry with an achieved record efficiency of over 22% demonstrated by First Solar, yet monocrystalline CdTe devices have received considerably less attention over the years. Monocrystalline CdTe double-heterostructure solar cells show great promise with respect to addressing the problem of low Voc with the passing of the 1 V benchmark. Rapid progress has been made in driving the efficiency in these devices ever closer to the record presently held by polycrystalline thin-films. This achievement is primarily due to the utilization of a remote p-n heterojunction in which the heavily doped contact materials, which are so problematic in terms of increasing non-radiative recombination inside the absorber, are moved outside of the CdTe double heterostructure with two MgyCd1-yTe barrier layers to provide confinement and passivation at the CdTe surfaces. Using this design, the pursuit and demonstration of efficiencies beyond 20% in CdTe solar cells is reported through the study and optimization of the structure barriers, contacts layers, and optical design. Further development of a wider bandgap MgxCd1-xTe solar cell based on the same design is included with the intention of applying this knowledge to the development of a tandem solar cell constructed on a silicon subcell. The exploration of different hole-contact materials—ZnTe, CuZnS, and a-Si:H—and their optimization is presented throughout the work. Devices utilizing a-Si:H hole contacts exhibit open-circuit voltages of up to 1.11 V, a maximum total-area efficiency of 18.5% measured under AM1.5G, and an active-area efficiency of 20.3% for CdTe absorber based devices. The achievement of voltages beyond 1.1V while still maintaining relatively high fill factors with no rollover, either before or after open-circuit, is a promising indicator that this approach can result in devices surpassing the 22% record set by polycrystalline designs. MgxCd1-xTe absorber based devices have been demonstrated with open-circuit voltages of up to 1.176 V and a maximum active-area efficiency of 11.2%. A discussion of the various loss mechanisms present within these devices, both optical and electrical, concludes with the presentation of a series of potential design changes meant to address these issues. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Electrical Engineering 2017

In the current global market, there are plenty solutions for the savings of energy in the different areas of consumption in buildings: Green roofs and walls, cool roofs, daylighting, motion sensors, and others but there are very few sources of renewable energy at the reach of a common person in residential (smaller) scale. Photovoltaic systems are the most well-know and reliable process of harvesting energy at this small scale. The relationship between energy demand and energy production when installing a photovoltaics system in a residence is one of the main drivers while making a decision at the time of purchasing a system. However, architectural decisions in early stages may influence, enhance or even decrease the possible energy generation and interior performance, thus influencing the possible return of investment. This study evaluates the possible architectural variations that may be beneficial or disadvantegous at a particular city and other circumstances. From, roof, angle, location, roof articulation, layout articulation , shading devices and others, this paper shows a spectrum of convenient and inconvenient projects due to current conditions like climate, solar radiation, typical construction, electricity rates and government incentives. As a conclusion a hierarchy of architectural elements when being used with photovoltaics is developed to demonstrate that a common user can strategically play with architectural features of his/her house to take the most out of the system.

Αντικείμενο της παρούσας διπλωματικής είναι η μελέτη του παράγοντα ποιότητας για τρία διαφορετικά πλαίσια για διαφορετικές καιρικές συνθήκες. Τα πλαίσια που μελετήθηκαν ήταν ένα πλαίσιο μονοκρυσταλλικού πυριτίου CONERGY Q 80 MI , ένα πλαίσιο πολυκρυσταλλικού πυριτίου sharp NE-80E2EA και ένα πλαίσιο δισεληνοϊνδιούχου χαλκού (CIS) τεχνολογίας thin –film SHELL ECLIPSE 75 –C . Στο θεωρητικό μέρος παραθέτονται οι βασικές αρχές της φυσικής των ημιαγωγών και περιγράφονται οι τεχνολογίες των τριών πλαισίων που μελετάμε. Επίσης, αναλύονται τα ηλεκτρικά χαρακτηριστικά του ηλιακού στοιχείου και τέλος παρουσιάζονται οι πρόσφατες μελέτες σχετικά με τον παράγοντα ποιότητας οι οποίες χρησιμοποιήθηκαν ως αναφορά για τη διεξαγωγή της πειραματικής διαδικασίας. Για την διεξαγωγή του πειραματικού μέρους πραγματοποιήθηκαν πειραματικές μετρήσεις διάρκειας πέντε μηνών (Οκτώβριος 2009 – Φεβρουάριος 2010 ) . Οι μετρήσεις αφορούσαν όλα τα ηλεκτρικά χαρακτηριστικά των τριών πλαισίων και έγιναν σε πραγματικές συνθήκες στην ταράτσα του κτιρίου του τμήματος Ηλεκτρολόγων Μηχανικών του πολυτεχνείου Πάτρας για την κλίση των 38° . Τα πειραματικά δεδομένα οδήγησαν σε συμπεράσματα σχετικά με την συμπεριφορά του παράγοντα ποιότητας των τριών πλαισίων σε διαφορετικές καιρικές συνθήκες. Επιπλέον, μελετήθηκε η επίδραση της θερμοκρασίας υπό σταθερή ακτινοβολία και της ακτινοβολίας υπό σταθερή θερμοκρασία στον παράγοντα ποιότητας και στις παραμέτρους που τον επηρεάζουν. Η μελέτη ολοκληρώθηκε με τον υπολογισμό της αποδιδόμενης ενέργειας των τριών πλαισίων στο ίδιο διάστημα. Τέλος υπολογίστηκε η ετήσια αποδιδόμενη ισχύς για την ίδια κλίση για τα τρία πλαίσια με την βοήθεια του προγράμματος PV SOL και έγινε σύγκριση αυτών των τιμών με τις πειραματικές. / The purpose of this thesis is to study the fill factor for three different photovoltaic modules under different weather conditions. The modules under investigation were a mono-crystalline CONERGY Q 80 MI, a polycrystalline silicon sharp NE-80E2EA and a CIS technology thin-film SHELL ECLIPSE 75–C. In the literature review the basic physical principles of semiconductor technology are presented and the technical characteristics of the three modules under study are described. Also, the electrical characteristics of a solar cell are analyzed. Finally, recent studies on the fill factor of solar cells are presented. In order to conduct the experimental part of this thesis, extensive outdoor measurements have been realized during five months (October 2009 - February 2010). We have realized measurements of the electrical characteristics of the three modules under environmental conditions, on the roof of the building of the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering of the University of Patras, at tilt angle of 38°. Conclusions were extracted, from experimental data, about the behavior of the fill factor of each of the three modules under varying weather conditions. Moreover, the effect of temperature and solar radiation on the fill factor of a solar cell was presented. The study was completed by calculating the energy yield from these modules during five months (October to February). Finally, the annual energy output was calculated using PV SOL software.

abstract: The object of this study was a 26 year old residential Photovoltaic (PV) monocrystalline silicon (c-Si) power plant, called Solar One, built by developer John F. Long in Phoenix, Arizona (a hot-dry field condition). The task for Arizona State University Photovoltaic Reliability Laboratory (ASU-PRL) graduate students was to evaluate the power plant through visual inspection, electrical performance, and infrared thermography. The purpose of this evaluation was to measure and understand the extent of degradation to the system along with the identification of the failure modes in this hot-dry climatic condition. This 4000 module bipolar system was originally installed with a 200 kW DC output of PV array (17 degree fixed tilt) and an AC output of 175 kVA. The system was shown to degrade approximately at a rate of 2.3% per year with no apparent potential induced degradation (PID) effect. The power plant is made of two arrays, the north array and the south array. Due to a limited time frame to execute this large project, this work was performed by two masters students (Jonathan Belmont and Kolapo Olakonu) and the test results are presented in two masters theses. This thesis presents the results obtained on the north array and the other thesis presents the results obtained on the south array. The resulting study showed that PV module design, array configuration, vandalism, installation methods and Arizona environmental conditions have had an effect on this system's longevity and reliability. Ultimately, encapsulation browning, higher series resistance (potentially due to solder bond fatigue) and non-cell interconnect ribbon breakages outside the modules were determined to be the primary causes for the power loss. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.S.Tech Electrical Engineering 2013

This thesis is focused on the study of the detection of electromagnetic radiation using monocrystalline perovskites. Theoretical part deals with basic principles of detections and possible applications of hybrid perovskite crystals in the field of ultraviolet and visible spectrum detection. Parameters of the recently published perovskite photodetectors are also presented. Experimental part describes synthesis, structural and optical properties of MAPbBr3 single crystals and electrical characterization of the Au/MAPbBr3/Au photodetector. Photodetector parameters (responsivity, external quantum efficiency and specific detectivity) are calculated based on the spectral and switching (on/off) current responses.

Cette thèse se place dans le cadre du projet Diamonix, qui vise à établir une filière diamant en France. La thèse porte sur des travaux de dimensionnement de protection périphérique, structure nécessaire au bon fonctionnement des composants d’électronique de puissance. Le développement de protections périphériques applicables aux diodes Schottky sur diamant monocristallin nécessite plusieurs étapes. Après un premier chapitre détaillant l’état de l’art de l’utilisation de diamant en électronique de puissance, nous nous attardons sur la conception de protection périphérique basée sur une plaque de champ à l’aide de divers diélectriques et ensuite à l’aide d’un matériau semi-résistif dans le chapitre 2. Ces simulations sont réalisées à l’aide du logiciel SENTAURUS TCAD. Le troisième chapitre essaie de répondre aux problèmes technologiques posés par le chapitre 2. Nous avons ainsi développé une nouvelle technique de gravure basée sur une succession d’étapes utilisant Ar/O2 puis CF4/O2. Puis, dans un deuxième temps, nous avons réalisé des capacités Métal/Diélectrique/Diamant afin de qualifier le comportement des diélectriques sur le matériau diamant. Leur comportement est problématique mais il s’agit à notre connaissance de la première étude poussée de capacités sur diamant. Le chapitre 4 revient sur la fabrication et la caractérisation de diodes Schottky protégées à l’aide de plaques de champ sur divers diélectriques, les résultats obtenus étant mitigés. Enfin, la conclusion revient sur les résultats importants de simulation, de gravure, de caractérisation des capacités et des diodes Schottky pour ensuite s’élargir et donner des perspectives de travail. / This thesis work is part of the Diamonix project, which is about forming a France-based supply and fabrication of diamond electronics devices. Work in this thesis is centered upon designing a peripheral junction protection suitable for diamond Schottky diodes, a vital structure for the right behavior of power electronics components. Such design on monocristalline diamond substrates needs several steps. After a first chapter dealing with diamond state of the art in power electronics, emphasis is brought upon the design of a field plate protection using several dielectric materials and a semi-resistive component in the second chapter. Those simulations are carried out using SENTAURUS TCAD software suite. The third chapter tries to answer any technological difficulties met in the second chapter. For instance, a new etching technique based upon a succession of steps has beeen developped. Then, Metal/Dielectric/Diamond capacitors were made to determine the electrical behavior of those dielectrics on diamond. Their behavior is problematic but it is to our knowledge the first time such devices are characterized in such extent. The fourth chapter deals with the processing and characterizing of diamond Schottky diodes protected using field plates on several dielectrics, which measurements results are a bit disappointing. Finally, the conclusion insists on the main results of the thesis and then opens up to a discussion over the perspectives of future works around diamond.

Nos últimos anos, avanços consideráveis foram alcançados no estudo da usinabilidade de materiais frágeis tais como cristais semicondutores, vidros ópticos, cerâmicas, etc. em função da demanda por processos mais rápidos de fabricação de superfícies com formas complexas para aplicações nos campos da óptica e eletrônica. A ductilidade apresentada por monocristais de silício durante a usinagem tem sido explicada através das Teorias de Mecânica de Fratura. Recentemente, algumas teorias novas foram apresentadas para justificar esta ductilidade. Foi proposto que a ductilidade de monocristais semicondutores seria provavelmente o resultado final de uma transformação de fase induzida por pressão/tensão durante o corte. Neste trabalho, a diferença entre os modos dúctil e frágil no Torneamento com Ferramenta de Ponta Única de superfícies de silício monocristalino foram investigadas através da técnica de espalhamento Raman. Nas condições que proporcionam o regime dúctil, existem sempre uma amorfização superficial nas amostras, denunciadas através da ativação de uma banda óptica Raman mais larga em 470 cm-1. Esta fase amorfa pode ser considerada resultante da transição de fase a qual o silício pode ter sofrido. Por outro lado, para as condições onde o modo frágil é predominante, somente um pico óptico agudo de fonon em 521.6 cm-1 está presente no espectro Raman. Baseado nas medições que determinados parâmetros de corte, tais como a profundidade de corte e a espessura crítica do cavaco, apresentaram este estudo propõe que o regime dúctil não deve possuir uma faixa definida e fixa de valores para os parâmetros críticos mas, ao invés disso, estes seriam dependentes da extensão da camada transformada induzida por pressão/tensão gerada pela interação entre a ponta/aresta da ferramenta de corte com a peça durante a usinagem. Esta proposta se baseia na comparação entre os valores obtidos e os medidos por outros autores que mostram que a extensão da fase amorfa observada após processos de deformação mecânica (p.e., indentação, riscamento, polimento, nanoretificação e torneamento com ferramenta de ponta única de diamante) encontram-se na mesma faixa de valores encontrados para os parâmetros críticos (100-200 nm). Finalmente, foi demonstrado, através de observações da topografia de ambos, cavacos e superfícies geradas, realizadas com MEV e MFA, que este tipo de análise pode oferecer explicações significativas sobre os mecanismos de remoção de material em ação durante a usinagem e também sobre o estado microscópicos da ferramenta de diamante. / In recent years, considerable progress has been made on the study of the machinability of fragile materials such as semiconductors crystals, optical glasses, ceramics, etc., because of the demand for faster fabrication processes of complex surface shapes for optoelectronic applications. The ductility presented by single crystal silicon during machining has been explained by fracture mechanics theories. Recently, some new theories have been presented in order to give another justify to this ductility. It was proposed that semiconductors single crystal ductility is likely the end result of a pressure/stress induced phase transformation during cutting. In this work, the difference between ductile and brittle mode single-point diamond turning on the surface of machined silicon samples were investigated using Raman scattering. In the ductile mode conditions of machining, there are always an amorphization of the surface samples, denounced by the activation of the broad Raman optical band at 470 cm-1. This amorphous phase can be considered resulted from the phase transiton which silicon might have suffered. Contrary to the findings, in the brittle mode conditions, only the sharp optical phonon peak at 521.6 cm-1 is present in Raman spectra. Based on the observation that certain cutting parameters such as cutting depth and critical chip thickness, e.g., the point where ductile-to-brittle transition occurs, somehow presents values in the same range (100-200 nm) that the amorphous phase layer depth extension after mechanical deformation. (p.e., indentation, scratching, polishing, nanogrinding and single point diamond turning) observed in the literature, it is propposed that the ductile regime has not a definite range of values for the critical parameters but instead, it is dependent of the extension of the phase transformed layer induced by pressure/stress generated by the tool tip/edge interaction with workpiece during machining. Finally, it is shown that observation of topography and morphology of chip and the surface generated through SEM and AFM can offer very significant explanation of the material removal mechanisms in action during the current machining cut and diamond tool state.