The emergence of the mule's role as a beast of burden working in mountain tourism is founded on our appreciation of this species' great attributes as a means of transport in the mountain environment. Our appreciation of mules does not always extend to their care and welfare. This is particularly true of the mountain tourism industry in Morocco, where this study is situated. Why has there been a collective absencing of the mule from the consciences of those involved in this industry? In seeking to answer this question and in moving towards the question of how the mountain tourism industry can be more present to the mule and to mule welfare, this thesis explores the multiple ways in which we know the mule. Drawing on a ten-year engagement with the industry, extensive ethnographic fieldwork in the High Atlas and an Action Research initiative supporting tour operators as they develop and implement welfare policy and practice, this thesis explores how mule welfare can be viewed as emerging from a multiplicity of practices that, in failing to cohere, become subject to negotiation and ontological politics. An alternative community approach based on dialogue is evoked that might allow a consensus to emerge over how welfare should be practised. The thesis focuses on the quality of the relationship between mules and humans. It emphasises the importance of genuine meeting and dialogue and the need for spaces and places in which mules and humans can come together to identify how they can establish relationships based on mutual trust and understanding rather than on control and domination. In prototyping better relationships between mules, muleteers and their employers, this thesis offers the mountain tourism industry transformative pathways toward a more equitable and sustainable co-creative project.

This dissertation explores the differential effects of an ungulate community (cattle, mule deer, and American elk) on aspen (Populus tremuloides) regeneration pre- and post-fire disturbance. It's first chapter examines the differential effects of cattle, mule deer, and American elk on aspen regeneration across variable topography, climate and forest type; aspen dominant to conifer dominant subalpine forests. We found that each ungulate species, if sufficiently numerous, can cause aspen regeneration failure. Also, high elevation, southern aspect and high winter snow pack increase resilience to ungulate herbivory. Chapter two compares the efficacy of four methods of estimating ungulate impact on aspen. We found that direct methods of estimation (meristem removal, and defoliation) are better indicators of ungulate impact than indirect methods (fecal and camera counts). Therefore, we suggest to management that removal of apical meristems be an indicator for relative ungulate use. In chapters 3 and 4 we use differential ungulate exclosure fencing similar and camera traps to model the year to year and monthly use of aspen by ungulates. We model the per unit animal impact on aspen using photo counts. Our results show that ungulates on a per animal basis utilize aspen similarly. However, when adjusted for body size, native ungulates select aspen more often than cattle. Also, we found that while aspen is more palatable in June it is relative use, as measured by removal of apical meristems is significantly higher throughout July and August. We conclude that aspen is relatively more palatable than grass and forb species late season, and becomes and important forage species late season when forbs and grass species nutrient content drops. In chapter five, we quantify the physiological effects of ungulates on aspen regeneration after fire in order to elucidate the physiological mechanisms underlying plant:animal interactions. We show that ungulate herbivory induces high concentrations of defense chemistry (Phenolics), and reduces palatability through lower foliar nonstructural carbohydrates, and that this high investment in defense and lower growth potential related to low palatability causes severe reductions in aspen vertical growth leading to aspen regeneration failure. Together, we examine how biotic and abiotic factors at the landscape level, as well as defense and physiological function at the leaf chemistry level mediate how ungulates influence aspen regeneration and recruitment

Wildlife-vehicle collisions (WVCs) negatively impact wildlife populations and create dangerous driving situations for motorists. In Utah, USA, mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) encounter a variety of hazards as they attempt to cross highways and interstates, some of which are 8 lanes wide. Agencies have sought to mitigate the risks posed to drivers and mule deer by building crossing structures for wildlife. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the effectiveness of crossing structures in Utah to safely pass mule deer under highways and to determine the variables that best explain mule deer passage use. From 2008 - 2011 we used 26 camera traps to measure levels of mule deer use of 9 culverts and 4 bridges in Utah. We tested for relationships between mule deer structure use and a variety of structural and landscape attributes at each site, including 2 time variables: time since the structure was built and time each structure was monitored by our camera traps. We also developed and tested a new equation (window ratio) that measured culvert openness to approaching mule deer. In the single variable regression models, mule deer structure use was positively correlated with short culverts and coarse scale shrub cover, and negatively correlated with fine scale grass cover. In the multivariate model, structure use was positively correlated with days monitored and elevation and short culverts. Although the new window ratio did not emerge as the most important predictor for mule deer crossing use, it was more effective at predicting mule deer culvert use than the often referenced openness factor. Our results indicated that 12 of the 13 crossing structures studied effectively facilitate the movement of mule deer in Utah; however some were used far more than others. We suggest that older crossing structures built with the shortest dimensions possible, with attached wildlife-exclusion fencing, and in shrubby habitat will be most effective at passing a high volume of mule deer under Utah highways.

Roads are essential in modern societies, but as populations grow and traffic volumes rise, roads will continue to be built and expanded. As a result, the effects that roads have on wildlife will likely intensify, making it imperative that managers understand those effects so mitigation can be directed accordingly. In Utah, considerable areas of mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) habitat have been bisected by roads. Mule deer are commonly involved in vehicle collisions and there is concern that roads and vehicle traffic are impacting populations. This project was conducted to determine the number and demographic effects of deer-vehicle collisions, to examine how movements and survival of deer were impacted by roads, and to develop a smartphone-based reporting system for wildlife-vehicle collisions. Accurate estimates of DVCs are needed to effectively mitigate the effects of roads, but great uncertainty exists with most deer-vehicle collision estimates. I estimated the number of deer-vehicle collisions using carcass surveys, while accounting for several sources of bias to improve accuracy. I estimated that 2-5 % of the statewide deer population was killed in vehicle collisions annually. The effect that vehicle collisions have on deer abundance depended not only on the number of deer killed but also on the demographic groups removed. I found that 65 % of deer killed in vehicle collisions were female and 40 % were adult females. As female deer are the primary drivers of population growth, my data suggest vehicle collisions could significantly affect population abundance. However I was unable to detect a decreasing trend in deer abundance. Deer have distinct movement patterns that affect their distribution in relationship to roads. I analyzed deer movements during two consecutive winters (2010-11 & 2011-12) to determine what effect climate had on deer movements and vehicle collision rates. I observed that as snow depth decreased, the distance that deer occurred from roads increased. As a result road crossing rates declined, as did the number of vehicle collisions. This suggests a causal mechanism by which winter conditions influence vehicle collision rates. Currently there is a need for an efficient wildlife-vehicle collision data collection. I envisioned and, working with colleagues, helped develop a smartphone-based system for reporting wildlife-vehicle collision data. The WVC Reporter system consisted of a mobile web application for data collection, a database for centralized storage of data, and a desktop application for viewing data. The system greatly improved accuracy and increased efficiency of data collection efforts, which will likely result in improved mitigation and ultimately increased safety for motorists and deer.

Estimates of population abundance and survival are critical for effective wildlife management. Obtaining estimates of these kind using traditional wildlife monitoring techniques (i.e. ground and aerial surveys) has proven to be difficult, especially for species that are wide ranging and exist in small, patchily distributed populations. My objective was to implement fecal DNA-based capture-recapture surveys to estimate abundance and survival of two different ungulate populations that inhabit the deserts of southeastern California. I also compared fecal DNA-based capture-recapture techniques to traditional methods by evaluating the costs and precision associated with both methods. Using artificial water sources as focal sampling sites, I performed sampling during the summers of 2015, 2016, and 2017 in the Mojave and Sonoran Deserts of California. I was able to obtain reasonably precise estimates of abundance and survival for both species. To my knowledge, my study provides the first abundance and survival estimates of desert mule deer in California in over 13 years. Additionally, my study shows that when compared to traditional methods, fecal DNA-based capture recapture techniques can achieve much higher precision at a fraction of the cost.

Three experiments were conducted to assess the potential for using Spanish goats to manage Gambel oakbrush winter range, dominated by Gambel oak (Quercus gambelii), for mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus). Summer- time food selection of goats, effects on plant community composition, and consequent effects on mule deer nutrition and foraging behavior were examined. An apparent preference for juvenile oak browse, and low use of oak twigs was observed. Selection for juvenile browse may have been facilitated by the retarded phenology of oak as compared to that of associated flora. This differential was maintained by repeated browsing. Animal performance, reflected in mass-specific gain rates, varied markedly. However, poor performance when observed, was not correlated with high juvenile oak content in diets. Goat browsing did not affect density of any shrub species. Stem size distributions changed in browsed oak populations only; skewness of these increased over time because of sprouting. Sprout weights increased in browsed oak populations, but declined in comparably browsed serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia) populations. The only other significant sprout response was a numerical increase in browsed snowberry (Symphoricarpos oreophilus) populations. Relationships between stem size and stem productivity in heavily browsed oak and serviceberry were characterized by lower slopes than those for adjacent control populations. Conversely, relationships in rabbitbrush (Chrvsothamnus viscidiflorus) populations, which were little used, were characterized by higher slopes than those for adjacent control populations. Sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata wvominqensis) production also responded positively, but via increased intercept. Browsing reduced productivity of both serviceberry and oak, but enhanced that of sagebrush. A positive production response was suggested for herbaceous species. Forage-base changes induced by goats caused wintering deer to increase the proportion of sagebrush in their diets under snow-covered conditions but not under snow-free conditions. Under snow-covered conditions, deer using goat-browsed pastures consumed diets higher in dry matter digestibility, but not protein, than those consumed by deer in control pastures. Dietary quality was unaffected by prior goat browsing under snow- free conditions. Furthermore, quality of diets consumed under snow-free conditions was not better than that consumed under snow-covered conditions.

I studied the behaviors, movement dynamics, habitat relationships, and population characteristics of Rocky Mountain mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) using urban and rural winter ranges in Cache Valley, Utah , from January 1994 to February 1998. There were 2 goals to my research endeavors. The first was to assess how and why the behaviors and demographic characteristics of urban deer differed from those of rural deer. The second was to assess the scale-dependent responses to habitat and the scale-dependent patterns of habitat use by deer living in each area. To accomplish the first goal, I compared the prevalence of migration, the spatial and temporal patterns of migration, and the spatial patterns of home range use between urban and rural deer. I also compared deer reproduction and population density in each area. I then explain how behavioral and demographic dissimilarities between urban and rural deer may have corresponded to differences in their net energetic gains (NEG) on seasonal ranges. These explanations, when combined graphically, generated a time-specific hypothesis of lower NEG by urban deer on a year-round basis. To accomplish the second goal, I developed new methodologies for analyzing animal movement pathways (which represent signatures of how animals respond to habitat), and animal patterns of habitat use . These methodologies explicitly incorporated the effects of spatial scale by employing fractal geometry and information theory. The results of these analyses showed that urban and rural deer responded to their habitats in similar ways at coarse resolutions of analysis (100-600 m), but differently at fine resolutions of analysis ( 4-60 m). I argue that similarities in habitat response at coarse resolutions reflected a common movement process that allowed deer maximize use of their home ranges while minimizing energetic expenditures. With respect to patterns of habitat use, urban deer concentrated in areas with concealment vegetation , which was highly fragmented across all resolutions of analysis. Rural deer, on the other hand, dispersed throughout areas containing shrubby vegetation at fine resolutions, and south-facing slopes at coarse resolutions. Interpretation of these results is discussed in detail.

Widely distributed species are experiencing a continual pattern of range shifts due to anthropogenic expansion and climate change, forcing these species into novel environments and out of critical habitat. The ability to estimate current and forecasted states of demographic parameters of species distributed along a gradient of environments is becoming increasingly important in a time of large-scale environmental change. Consulting models that provide temporally relevant estimates of population dynamics based on the latest realizations of environmental conditions can allow for informed, quick and decisive conservation and management actions. Modelling the drivers of demography across a wide range of environmental conditions will provide a more comprehensive understanding of how species will respond to novel environments. In this study we provide an example of relating seasonal-environmental variables to survival in a widely distributed ungulate species. We used a mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) survival dataset collected in Utah with seven sites distributed across the multiple ecoregions of the state, allowing for the elucidation of relationships across a variety of environmental conditions. Multivariate analyses predicting survival of young and adult females were performed using geographic location, elevation, and seasonal satellite-derived primary productivity data and weather variables. We developed frameworks for estimating past and current states of survival and predicting short-term (sub-year) forecasts of survival. Furthermore, we investigated adaptive modelling techniques for increasing the certainty of the forecasted predictions of survival. We found that increased winter precipitation had a negative effect on survival across the state. Survival was lower in the northern region of the state and in higher elevations. Furthermore, measures of summer primary productivity had a positive relationship with survival. Lastly, our adaptive modelling demonstration shows that uncertainty of forecasted survival predictions can be reduced with the addition of data. This study provides a framework for developing models that will provide invaluable information to managers in a time of large-scale environmental change.

The dynamics of pathogen and host relationships relative to disease transmission in wildlife populations are important ecological processes to understand, particularly since spatial dynamics of disease can be driven by movement, behavior, and dispersal of animals. Chronic Wasting Disease (CWD) is an example of this important interface, where little is known regarding origin of the disease or routes of transmission. Surveillance data for CWD in free-ranging mule deer indicates that breeding-age male deer have 2-4 times higher prevalence rates than females or younger age males. In an effort to understand differences that might increase risk for exposure to CWD infective agents, I used GPS data to examine breeding behavior and home range sizes of mule 11 deer. GPS radiocollars were placed on adult (> 2 ½ years) males, females, and young ( < 2 ½ years) males. Data collected during the breeding season was used to infer visitation rates of males to females. Cluster analysis was used to separate data into periods of movement (spatio-temporal clusters) and non-movement. Females formed more spatio-temporal clusters and movement paths than males. However, males spent more time moving, had more long-term periods of movement, moved an estimated 1 km/day more than females, and had more tortuous movement paths. Male home ranges for winter, summer, and breeding seasons were also larger than those of females. Overall, data indicates that males may have an increased risk of exposure to CWD relative to females, because of larger movements and greater space use. These male behavioral differences may result in increased encounter rates with CWD infectious material through greater exposure in the environment to sources such as carcasses from infected animals, their excreta, or contaminated soils. Furthermore, during the breeding season increased male sociality, as suggested by increased movement rates and movement path tortuousity, combined with larger space use may further enhance direct contact with infected individuals and increase exposure to excreta sources such as feces and alimentary secretions due to licking and tending behaviors.

Orientador: Ana Liz Garcia Alves / Resumo: As terapias regenerativas com a utilização de células tronco mesenquimais (CTMs) têm sido amplamente empregadas com a finalidade de modificar a progressão de enfermidades locomotoras em animais de grande porte. Estudos sobre o comportamento das células tronco, portanto, mostram-se de extrema importância para que, cada vez mais, elucidar sua ação, efeito e eficácia nos tratamentos propostos. A inserção das CTMs derivadas do tecido adiposo de muares em microcápsulas de hidrogel gera expectativas promissoras para a proteção da célula contra anticorpos do receptor, bem como processos inflamatórios exacerbados, distribuição de agentes terapêuticos e supressão de processos inflamatórios. O presente trabalho teve por objetivo verificar o comportamento das CTMs após o encapsulamento em hidrogel, quanto a sua viabilidade, migração, além da avaliação morfológica e imuno-histoquímica. Avaliação da morfologia da cápsula, dos poros, a rugosidade por microscopia eletrônica de varredura (MEV) e observação das células encapsuladas pela microscopia confocal de varredura a laser. A porcentagem de células viáveis manteve-se ao longo dos momentos em uma média de 93%, então o biomaterial permitiu a difusão de nutrientes e oxigênio adequadamente. A diminuição da quantidade de células no interior das cápsulas é justificada pela possível migração das mesmas através dos microporos das microcápsulas permitindo a aderência à placa de cultivo. Na avaliação morfológica foi possível identificar as células... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: Regenerative therapies using mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have been widely widespread to treat locomotor diseases in large animals. Studies on the behavior of stem cells are extremely important to increase our knowledge regarding their action, effect and effectiveness in the proposed treatments. The insertion of muar adipose-derived MSCs into hydrogel microcapsules yields promising expectations for cell protection against immune response, as well as exacerbated inflammatory processes, delivery of therapeutic agents, and suppression of inflammatory processes. The present research aimed to verify the behavior of MSCs after hydrogel encapsulation, including cell viability, migration, morphological and immunohistochemical pattern. Evaluation of capsule morphology, pore size, roughness by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and observation of encapsulated cells by confocal laser scanning microscopy. The percentage of viable cells remained throughout the moments at an average of 93%, so the biomaterial allowed the diffusion of nutrients and oxygen properly. A decreased amount of cells number inside the capsules is justified by the possible migration of them through the microcapsule micropores allowing adherence to the culture plate. The cells showed positive CD44 staining, absence in MHC II. The capsules were evaluated with SEM for their morphology, the area of circular and irregular pores and the size of the cells. It was possible to confirm the presence of stem cells in the micro... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Doutor