In Russia today, conservative views about gender are often promoted through reference to the past, to show that supposedly ‘traditional’ gender roles are intrinsic to Russian history. Frequently, this idea is upheld in scholarship. My work explores the historicity of commonly held assumptions about gender. This dissertation focusses on gender and sexuality in Russia from the sixteenth to early eighteenth centuries. It shows that ideas about what constituted a virtuous marriage were established by reference to ideas about brotherhood. Brotherhood here refers not to biological siblings, but to a church rite of ‘spiritual brotherhood’ known in Russian as bratotvorenie. This rite has not been studied in any depth before. Based on archival work, this dissertation offers a detailed account of the tradition in Russia until its ban in 1650, when it was prohibited by leading ecclesiastical figures for being too like marriage. One churchman complained: ‘The priest, joining together these two men, unites them in matrimony’. The dissertation shows that bratotvorenie was conceived of in premodern Russia as a form of same-sex union, and that it was through banning this tradition that churchmen came to express in a coherent way which kinds of partnership were legitimate and why. The first chapter challenges the idea that marriage was always a monogamous union between a man and a woman for the creation of children, an idea that is often encountered in academic literature on Russian marriage history. It shows that the church rite of marriage was edited in Russia during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, when ideas about the sacramental nature of marriage changed. The second chapter builds on these observations, suggesting that marriage and ‘spiritual brotherhood’ were understood as analogous in the premodern period. The final two chapters look at depictions of marriage and brotherhood in hagiography and iconography respectively. They focus on Petr and Fevroniia, the first married couple to be canonised in Russia in 1547. In 2008, their feast day was reworked into a state festival called the ‘Day of Family, Love and Fidelity’, now widely celebrated across Russia. Petr and Fevroniia have been cast as the patron saints of so-called ‘traditional moral-spiritual values’. This view is generally upheld in existent scholarship on the saints. This dissertation responds to the way the saints are being represented today, arguing that they were initially venerated for subverting normative ideas about gender and sexuality—that they were queer. What is more, their veneration paralleled the veneration of holy brothers. Their hagiography seems to have been based on the Life of a monastic brotherhood, and icons depicting Petr and Fevroniia standardly showed them in monastic robes. Focussing on marriage and brotherhood in premodern Russia, each chapter of this dissertation challenges a preconceived idea about the immutability of supposedly ‘traditional’ gender roles in Russian history.

To produce male Muscovy only for fatty liver and meat-type production is an important economic goal in animal husbandry, although the sex-determining mechanism in poultry remains to be elucidated. Manipulation of sex-determining gene(s) in poultry provides enormous opportunities on the development of sex pre-selection reproductive systems. DSX and MAB-3 genes in Drosophila and C. elegans are conserved across the human, mice, chickens, fish, turtles, and reptiles revealing an ancient sex-determining locus DMRT1. Thus the Z-linked, DMRT1 in chicken is an excellent candidate regulatory gene controlling similar aspects of sexual development in poultry. This dissertation is aimed to clone and characterize Muscovy DMRT1 gene for further application in sex pre-selection. Partial cDNA sequences of Muscovy DMRT1 was determined and revealed 95% identity and 83% with chicken and red-eared slider turtle DMRT1 cDNA sequences. DMRT1 orthologs among various species were analyzed by Phylip program and phylogenetic tree was constructed by MEGA2 programs. Results indicated that Muscovy, chicken and red-eared slider turtle DMRT1 revealing 95%, and 83% identity at cDNA and 61%, 54% identity at amino acid level.

The present dissertation seeks to present and analyze the hitherto poorly understood first encounter between the Ottoman Empire and the Tsardom of Muscovy in the North Caucasus from the Muscovites’ annexation of the nearby Khanate of Astrakhan in 1556 and subsequent penetration into this region, to their expulsion from it by the Ottomans in 1605. The study relies on both Ottoman and Muscovite sources, both documentary and narrative, as well as archival and published. The main archival documentary sources are the Ottoman mühimme defters (registers of orders issued by the Imperial Council [Divan-i Hümayun]) and the Muscovite posol’skie knigi (registers of diplomatic documentation, including ambassadorial reports, diplomatic correspondence, and other documents administered by the Ambassadorial Office [Posol’skii Prikaz]). The main narrative sources are sixteenth-century Ottoman and Muscovite chronicles. On the basis of the Ottoman and Muscovite documentary sources it is possible to determine what Ottoman and Muscovite policies in the North Caucasus were, to what degree they were well-formulated, and how they evolved during the aforementioned time period. It becomes clear that Ottoman and Muscovite policies in the Pontic-Caspian steppes and specifically in the North Caucasus had some superficial similarities, but were in essence fundamentally different. Taking into account that it was only after Muscovy’s expansion into the North Caucasus that the Ottomans decided to take an active stand in the north, the dissertation also shows the ways in which Muscovite steppe policy not only affected the political structures on the frontiers but also influenced Ottoman northern policy, and specifically in the North Caucasus. However, this dissertation is not solely a study of an imperial rivalry in a contested frontier zone. The Ottoman and Muscovite involvement brought about changes to the internal dynamics of the polities within the North Caucasus. Lastly, during the first round of this imperial clash, Ottoman and Muscovite presence and sway in the North Caucasus underwent several extreme and unexpected shifts. These shifts and resulting new strategies that the Ottomans and Muscovites had to develop in the North Caucasus played an important role in their future encounters in the northern Black Sea region.

Analysis of performance of the Muscovy duck was done based on the results of fattening test carried out by the state enterprise the International Poultry Testing Station in Ústrašice. Ducks (300 pcs) were fed to the age of 70 days and drakes to the age of 84 days. The weight of both ducks and drakes on the 1st day was 50.2 g. On the 21st day the ducks weight 595 g and drakes 621 g (126 g difference). At 49 days of age the weight of the ducks was 1 802 g and the weight of the drakes was 2 589 g (902 g difference). At 70 days the weight of ducks was 2 328 g and at 84 days the weight of drakes was 4 424 g. The average daily gain was 37.7 g for ducks and 58.8 g for drakes (20.3 g difference). The feed consumption required for 1 kg gain was 3 120 g for ducks and 2 970 g for drakes (150 g difference). During the test, only 1 duck died at 55th day of the fattening due to the motion apparatus disease. 20 ducks and 20 drakes were selected for slaughter performance test. The percentage of abdominal fat was 2.8% for ducks and 2.1% for drakes. The slaughter yield was 73.8% for ducks and 73.0% for drakes. The carcass weight was found to be 1 918 g for ducks and 3 462 g for drakes (difference 1.544 g, P < 0.001). The weight of breast muscles with skin was 581 g for ducks and 1046 g for drakes (difference 465 g, P < 0.01). The weight of thigh muscle with skin was 359 g in ducks and 654 g in drakes (difference 295 g, P < 0.001).

Le microbiote intestinal constitue un élément important pour l’hôte, il est impliqué notamment au niveau immunologique ou physiologique. La connaissance de la composition de ce microbiote est la première étape dans la compréhension des phénomènes qui lui sont associés. Les travaux de cette thèse se sont articulés selon plusieurs objectifs. La première étape a été de faire un état des lieux de la composition du microbiote de deux types génétiques parentaux : le canard Pékin (Anas Platyrhynchos), le canard de Barbarie (Cairina Moschata) ainsi que de leur hybride ; le canard mulard. Nous avons ainsi pu observer des compositions différentes selon le type génétique avec tout de même la prédominance dans chacune des trois espèces de deux phyla : les Firmicutes et les Bacteroidetes. Différentes conditions rencontrées dans l’environnement sont à même de créer un déséquilibre dans la composition du microbiote. Une des conditions possibles est un changement dans l’alimentation ainsi la seconde étape a été de voir l’impact du gavage sur les communautés bactériennes composant le microbiote. Celui-ci induit bien des modifications au sein du microbiote en privilégiant certaines classes bactériennes notamment les Bacilli et les Clostridia selon le type génétique. Un effet du gavage a été montré au niveau du microbiote iléal tandis que l’on retrouve un effet du type génétique ainsi que du gavage mais plus faible que dans l’iléon au niveau des caeca. Deux autres travaux ont été réalisés, le premier concernait l’ajout d’un probiotique (Lactobacillus sakei) sur le microbiote des canards mulards durant la phase de gavage. Nous avons montré que lors de cet ajout, nous observions une forte augmentation des lactobacilli au niveau de l’iléon. Enfin suite aux fortes contaminations retrouvées dans le sud-ouest ainsi que ses effets toxiques montrés dans différentes études, le dernier travail effectué a été de voir l’effet du cadmium sur le microbiote des canards Pékin et Barbarie. Nous avons pu ainsi observer les modifications de la communauté microbienne lors de l’ajout de cadmium ainsi l’accumulation de celui-ci dans les reins au cours du gavage. Des effets combinés entre le cadmium et la période de gavage ainsi qu’avec le type génétique ont été mis en lumière. Une tendance à une accumulation différentielle du cadmium a été observé selon le type génétique. / The intestinal microbiota is an important element for the host; it is particularly involved in immunological or physiological level. Knowledge of the composition of the microbiota is the first step in understanding the phenomena associated with it. The work of this PhD was organized according to several objectives. The first step was to realize a molecular inventory of the microbiota composition of the two parental genetic types: the Pekin duck (Anas Platyrhynchos), the Muscovy duck (Cairina moschata) and their hybrid, the mule duck. We have observed different compositions depending on the genetic type although with a predominance of two phyla: the Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes for all ducks species. Different conditions encountered in the environment are likely to create an imbalance in the composition of the microbiota. One is a change in diet; therefore the second step was to see the impact of overfeeding on bacterial communities. Overfeeding causes many changes in the bacterial microbiota and increase two classes: Bacilli and Clostridia according to the genetic type. The effect of overfeeding has been shown principally on the ileal microbiota while genetics and overfeeding both affected weekly cecal microbiota. We then studied the impact of adding a probiotic strain (Lactobacillus sakei) on the microbiota of mule ducks during the overfeeding period. We could see here a significant effect of this addition only in the ileum with a sharp increase in lactobacilli. Finally, due to high levels of contamination found in the southwest of France and its toxic effects on metabolism shown in various studies, the last work was to see the effect of cadmium on the microbiota of Pekin and Muscovy ducks. We observed changes in the microbial community when adding cadmium and see the accumulation of it in the kidneys during overfeeding. Combined effects between cadmium and the feeding period as well as the genetic type were highlighted. Finally

Tout au long de leur vie, les espèces animales vont transformer de l'énergie apportée par l'alimentation en énergie utilisable par la cellule. Cependant, dans l'environnement naturel, l'accès à la ressource alimentaire est souvent limité et dépendant des conditions climatiques. Cette contrainte oblige les espèces sauvages à mettre en place des compromis d'allocation d'énergie permettant de favoriser la survie, la croissance ou la reproduction. Les espèces aviaires représentent de bons modèles pour étudier les adaptations aux contraintes environnementales puisqu'elles ont colonisé la quasi-totalité du globe et notamment les niches écologiques les plus « extrêmes ». Parmi les oiseaux sauvages vivant en conditions défavorables, notre intérêt s'est porté sur le manchot royal (Adptenodytes patagonicus) et plus particulièrement sur son poussin qui, au cours la 1ère année de vie va subir un jeûne hivernal de 4 à 5 mois au cours duquel les nourrissages sont peu fréquents et aléatoires. Ainsi, cette espèce est naturellement adaptée à des conditions thermiques défavorables pouvant être associées à des phases de jeûne alimentaire. Plusieurs travaux ont montré que malgré l'exposition prolongée au froid, la dépense énergétique diminue au cours des phases de jeûne, permettant ainsi d'économiser les réserves énergétiques et de préserver les protéines nécessaires aux fonctions cellulaires. La forte proportion que représente le muscle squelettique lui confère une part importante de la dépense énergétique. Des études ont montré que malgré son implication dans la thermogenèse, l'activité oxydative (consommation d'oxygène) mitochondriale est diminuée au cours du jeûne hivernal. Cependant, ces travaux ont porté uniquement sur l'étude de la capacité oxydative et non sur le couplage entre les oxydations et les phosphorylations (synthèse d'ATP). Ce couplage représente l'efficacité avec laquelle les mitochondries vont produire de l'énergie (ATP) en consommant de l'oxygène. C'est donc un paramètre important dans la gestion des réserves énergétiques. Mes travaux de thèse ont reposé sur l'hypothèse selon laquelle, la plasticité de l'efficacité mitochondriale du muscle squelettique expliquerait en partie les capacités de survie des oiseaux en conditions défavorables, aussi bien lorsque ces derniers sont exposés à une contrainte thermique importante que lorsqu'ils sont soumis à un jeûne prolongé / Throughout their life, wild species face periods of food-deprivation that induce energy tradeoffs between survival, growth and reproduction. These fasting periods occur either when food availability is lacking due to adverse climatic conditions or because individuals are engaged in biological processes that prevent food access. This later reason is particularly well illustrated in the king penguin (Aptenodytes patagonicus), a sea bird that has to moult and reproduce on shore whereas he feed exclusively at sea. Moreover king penguin chicks exhibit exceptional survival capacities during their first year of life when they experience a long period of fast in winter. Thus, this species that lives in sub-Antarctic latitudes, is exposed to environmental and physiological energy constraints during food shortage periods. Since king penguins are endotherms, they need to maintain their body temperature at high level despite variations of ambient temperature. Thus thermoregulation is one of the most expensive process and skeletal muscles account for the greater part of heat production in birds. Several studies showed that despite long term cold exposure, energy expenditure of fasting birds decreases allowing energy savings and especially protein sparing. Since skeletal muscles have high implications in energy expenditure and heat production the question of their implication in energy saving mechanisms arises. During my PhD project I studied skeletal muscle metabolism through mitochondrial efficiency. These sub-cellular organelles are the last effectors of energy transduction from nutrient into ATP, an usable energy for cells. Our hypothesis is based on the flexibility of mitochondrial efficiency as a regulator of energy sparing mechanisms which would explain long term resistance to starvation. My studies were conducted in a wild species, the king penguin chicks, that are naturally acclimated to cold environment and experienced long term fasting stage. To further investigate mitochondrial plasticity in response to energy constraints, I developed several experimental procedures in controlled conditions on a laboratory model (Muscovy ducklings)