La gaine de myéline joue un rôle essentiel dans l'efficacité de la conduction électrique des impulsions nerveuses dans le système nerveux central et le système nerveux périphérique. Afin de mieux comprendre le rôle de la myéline dans les maladies auto-immunes qui affectent le système nerveux, l'influence des protéines MBP-C1, MBP-C8 (une forme mutante) et P2 sur la structure de la membrane a été étudiée par diffraction neutronique, et sur sa dynamique par diffusion neutronique élastique incohérente (EINS) et diffusion neutronique quasi-élastique (QENS). Les expériences ont révélé que des changements de structure se produisent dans les membranes de myéline modèles dans la région de température couvrant les transitions de phase des lipides. Par des mesures de diffraction neutronique, on a observé que les protéines MBP-C1 et P2 affectent profondément la structure des membranes de myéline reconstituées, révélant des changements importants dans la bicouche de la phase liquide. Une variété de comportements dynamiques fonctions de la température sont également observés par EINS dans le modèle des membranes de myéline: une transition entre un régime harmonique vers un régime non harmonique en raison des rotations du groupe de méthyle est suivie par d'autres transitions induites par la transition de phase gel-liquide de la bicouche et de la fusion de l'eau d'hydratation. MBP-C1 s'avère réduire la dynamique de la membrane, augmentant la température à partir de laquelle la première transition se produit et réduisant la dynamique dans la phase de gel. Ces résultats sont en adéquation avec les mesures par QENS qui montrent une réduction de la dynamique de la membrane dans la phase de gel induite par MBP-C1. Au contraire, dans la phase liquide, MBP-C1 s'avère accroître les mouvements de diffusion observés par QENS, ce qui est consistant avec l'observation des changements de la structure bicouche induits par MBP-C1 dans la phase liquide: en raison de l'élargissement de l'espace à l'intérieur de la bicouche, causé par la protéine MBP-C1 qui pénètre dans la bicouche, les lipides pourraient avoir augmenté leur degré de liberté. Aucune différence significative sur les mouvements observés de la membrane entre les effets de MBP-C1 et sa forme modifiée MBP-C8 associée à de multiples scléroses n'a été observée dans cette étude. Par ailleurs, on a démontré que les protéines MBP-C1 et P2 agissent de façon fortement synergique et il se pourrait qu'elles s'associent à l'intérieur de la membrane. Leur capacité à réduire la dynamique de la membrane dans la phase liquide est considérablement accrue quand les deux protéines sont présentes. Un modèle est proposé dans lequel les protéines associées influencent des grandes parties de la membrane en améliorant l'adhésion entre les bicouches par leurs fortes interactions électrostatiques et par un effet de synergie sur leur empilement. / The myelin sheath is essential for efficient electrical conduction of nerve impulses in the central and in the peripheral nervous system. To gain insight into the role of myelin, in autoimmune diseases that affect the nervous system, the influence of the myelin protein MBP-C1, a mutated form MBP-C8, and P2 on the membrane structure was investigated using neutron diffraction and on the membrane dynamics using incoherent elastic (EINS) and quasielastic neutron scattering (QENS). The experiments revealed that structural changes occur in the model myelin membranes across the temperature region covering the lipid phase transitions. The myelin proteins MBP-C1 and P2 are shown to strongly affect the structure of the model myelin membranes, shown by neutron diffraction measurements revealing significant changes in the bilayer spacing in the liquid phase. A range of distinct dynamical behaviours are observed by EINS in the model myelin membranes as a function of temperature: a first transition from a harmonic to an anharmonic temperature regime, assigned to methyl group rotations, is followed by further transitions induced by the gel-liquid phase transition of the bilayer and melting of the hydration water. MBP-C1 is shown to reduce the dynamics of the membrane, increasing the temperature at which the first transition occurs, and reducing the dynamics in the gel phase. These results were in agreement with quasielastic neutron scattering measurements, which showed a reduction of confined diffusive motions of the membrane in the gel phase induced by MBP-C1. In contrast, in the liquid phase, MBP-C1 was found to enhance diffusive motions, revealed with QENS, which is consistent with the observed changes to the bilayer structure that are induced by MBP-C1 in the liquid phase: due to the widening of the interbilayer space caused by MBP-C1, which penetrates into the bilayer, the lipids may have increased their conformational freedom. Any significant difference between the effects of MBP-C1 and its modified form MBP-C8, which is associated with multiple sclerosis, on motions of the membrane, investigated by QENS, were not identified in this study. It was demonstrated that both proteins MBP-C1 and P2 act in a highly synergistic manner and may associate within the membrane. Their ability to reduce the membrane dynamics in the liquid phase is considerably enhanced when both proteins are present. A model is proposed in which the associated proteins influence large fractions of the membranes by promoting adhesion between the bilayers through their strong electrostatic interactions and by their synergistic stacking effect.

No description available.

Multi-site MRI studies collect large amounts of data in a short time frame. Large sample sizes are desirable to address power and replicability issues that have been problematic for scientists in the past. Although multi-site MRI solves the sample size problem, it brings with it a new set of challenges. Scanning the same person at different sites might result in differences in MRI derived measurements. In this thesis we compared three approaches to facilitate the analysis of multi-site MRI data: quantitative R1 mapping, adding site as a covariate in a linear model, and using the ComBat method. We also investigated the relationship between two common MRI measurements: signal and volume. We collected data from 64 healthy participants across 3 GE scanners and 1 Siemens scanner at 3T. We found that signal intensity was different between vendors whereas volume was not. Our R1 method resulted in values that were different across vendor and significantly lower than those reported in the literature. B1+ maps used to calculate R1 were different across sites. Using a scale factor, we were able to compensate for mistakes in R1 mapping. We also found that adding site as a covariate corrected mean differences in signal intensity across sites, but not differences in variance. The ComBat method gave best similarity between sites. However, since different people were scanned at each site, we couldn’t evaluate the effectiveness of each method as variation in the data could have been due to site effects or heterogeneity in participants. White matter volume and signal intensity in the white matter were correlated in males but not in females. We found that this low correlation was caused by outliers in our female sample. The correlation between white matter volume and signal in males suggests that both metrics are measuring myelin and can be used as converging evidence to detect changes in brain myelination. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc)

Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is an inflammatory disease which causes areas of demyelination in the Central Nervous System (CNS) and affects only humans. Current therapies for MS are focused on anti-inflammatory treatment, which reduce the occurrence and clinical relapses of the disease. However, progressive disability of the disease is related to axonal degeneration. After demyelination, remyelination occurs, which helps repair the demyelinated lesions and protects axons from degeneration. However, this endogenous remyelination is inefficient, and currently there are no therapies available to enhance remyelination. The aim of this thesis was to first characterize a fast and reliable model to study CNS remyelination in vitro, and second to investigate the role of semaphorin 3a (Sema3A) and semaphorin 3f (Sema3F) signaling in CNS remyelination. Various in vivo models have been developed to investigate the pathology of multiple sclerosis, and can be used to test remyelination therapies. However, in vivo models are expensive, animal- and time- consuming. Until now, there has been no well-characterized and robust in vitro model for remyelination study. In this thesis, an ex vivo slice culture system with mouse brain and spinal cord was developed, and characterized by immunofluorescent microscopy and transmission electron microscopy, for CNS remyelination study. Automated (re)myelinating quantification by image pro plus software was developed and validated to provide a fast and reliable way for testing factors that change remyelination efficiency. Two such factors are Sema3A and 3F, which were initially identified as axon guidance cues during development. Sema3A (repulsive) and 3F (attractive) were proved to play a role in oligodendrocyte precursor cell (OPC) migration during development, and hypothesized to be important in remyelination. In this thesis, I investigated the effects and mechanisms for this by adding recombinant SEMA3A or SEMA3F or by knockdown their obligatory receptors Neuropilin (Nrp) 1 and 2, using lentivirus induced miRNAi. Slice culture and primary OPC culture were used to determine the effect on OPC survival, migration, proliferation, differentiation and myelination.

Cerebral hypoperfusion can occur in normal ageing and is proposed to underlie white matter disturbances observed in the ageing brain. Moreover, cerebral hypoperfusion and white matter attenuation are early events in the progression of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). White matter mostly consists of myelinated axons which have distinct protein architecture, segregated into defined regions; the axon initial segment (AIS), the node of Ranvier, paranode, juxtaparanode, and internode. These sites are essential for action potential initiation and/or propagation and subsequently effective brain function. At the outset of the studies in the thesis there was evidence that the different regions within the myelinated axons are vulnerable to injury and disease. Thus it is hypothesised that in response to normal ageing and/or cerebral hypoperfusion these structures are altered and associated with cognitive impairment and that these effects are exacerbated in a transgenic mouse model (APPSw,Ind, J9 line) which develops age-dependent amyloid-β (Αβ) pathology. The first study aims to investigate the effect of normal ageing and Aβ deposition on myelinated axons and on learning and memory. To address this, the effects of normal ageing on the integrity of the AIS, nodes of Ranvier, myelin, axons, synapses and spatial working memory are examined in young and aged wild-type and TgAPPSw,Ind mice. A significant reduction in the length of nodes of Ranvier is demonstrated in aged wild-type and TgAPPSw,Ind mice. In addition, the length of AIS, is significantly reduced in the aged wild-type animals while the young TgAPPSw,Ind have significantly shorter AIS than the young wild-type mice. These effects are not influenced by the presence of Aβ. Myelin integrity is affected by age but this is more prominent in the wild-type animals whilst axonal integrity is intact. Moreover, there is an age-related decrease of presynaptic boutons only in the TgAPPSw,Ind mice. Contrary to the original hypothesis, working memory performance is not altered with age or influenced by increasing Aβ levels. The second study aims to examine the effects of cerebral hypoperfusion in combination with Αβ pathology and/or ageing on cognitive performance and the structure of myelinated axons. To address this, the effects of surgically induced cerebral hypoperfusion on the integrity of the nodes of Ranvier, paranodes, myelin, axons and spatial working memory performance are investigated in young and aged wild-type and TgAPPSw,Ind mice. A decrease in nodal length is observed in response to hypoperfusion in young and aged animals. This effect is shown to be exacerbated in the young TgAPPSw,Ind animals. Moreover, the disruption of the nodal domain is shown to occur without any gross alterations in myelin and axonal integrity. It is also demonstrated that in response to hypoperfusion, spatial working memory performance is defected in young and aged animals of both genotypes. This deficit is exacerbated in the young TgAPPSw,Ind. The observed changes in the nodal structure are associated with poor working memory performance indicating functional implication for the nodal changes. These data highlight that structures within myelinated axons are vulnerable to ageing and cerebral hypoperfusion. Therefore, the development of strategies that minimize injury or drive repair to these regions is necessary together with therapeutic approaches against the vascular insults that induce hypoperfusion and lead to white matter attenuation and cognitive decline. In the future, it would be interesting to investigate how alterations at the AIS/nodes of Ranvier affect neuronal excitability.

No description available.

Intact white matter is critical for normal cognitive function. In traumatic brain injury (TBI), chronic cerebral hypoperfusion and Alzheimer’s disease (AD) damage to white matter is associated with cognitive impairment. However, these conditions are associated with grey matter damage or with other pathological states and the contribution of white matter damage in isolation to their pathogenesis is not known. Furthermore, TBI is a risk factor for AD and cerebral hypoperfusion is an early feature of AD. It is hypothesised that white matter damage following TBI or chronic cerebral hypoperfusion will be associated with cognitive deficits and that white matter changes after injury contribute to AD pathogenesis. To investigate this, this thesis examined the contribution of white matter damage to cognitive deficits after TBI and chronic cerebral hypoperfusion and furthermore, investigated the role of white matter damage in the relationship between TBI and AD. Three studies addressed these aims. In the first, mild TBI was induced in wild-type mice and the effects on axons, myelin and neuronal cell bodies examined at time points from 4 hours to 6 weeks after injury. Spatial reference learning and memory was tested at 3 and 6 weeks after injury. Injured mice showed axonal damage in the cingulum, close to the injury site in the hours after injury and at 6 weeks, damage in the thalamus and external capsule were apparent. Injured and sham animals had comparable levels of neuronal damage and no change was observed in myelin. Injured animals showed impaired spatial reference learning at 3 weeks after injury, demonstrating that selective axonal damage is sufficient to impair cognition. In the second study mild TBI was induced in a transgenic mouse model of AD and the effects on white matter pathology and AD-related proteins examined 24 hours after injury. There was a significant increase in axonal damage in the cingulum and external capsule and parallel accumulations of amyloid were observed in these regions. There were no changes in tau or in overall levels of AD-related proteins. This suggests that axonal damage may have a role in mediating the link between TBI and AD. The third study used a model of chronic cerebral hypoperfusion in wild type mice and investigated white matter changes after one and two months of hypoperfusion as well as a comprehensive assessment of learning and memory. Chronic cerebral hypoperfusion resulted in diffuse myelin damage in the absence of ischaemic neuronal damage at both 1 and 2 months after induction of hypoperfusion. Hypoperfused animals also showed minimal axonal damage and microglial activation. Cognitive testing revealed a selective impairment in spatial working memory but not spatial reference or episodic memory in hypoperfused animals, showing that modest reductions in blood flow have effects on white matter sufficient to cause cognitive impairment. These results demonstrate that selective damage to white matter components can have a long-term impact on cognitive function as well as on the development of AD. This suggests that minimisation of axonal damage after TBI is a target for reducing subsequent risk of AD and that repair or prevention of white matter damage is a promising strategy for rescuing cognitive function in individuals who have experienced mild TBI or chronic cerebral hypoperfusion.

La migration des cellules souches / progénitrices neurales (CSPN) dans le cerveau adulte est cruciale pour la réparation cérébrale. Reeline (Rln) est une protéine de la matrice extracellulaire, régulant le positionnement des neurones pendant la croticogénèse. Nous révélons un rôle nouveau de Rln chez l'adulte. In vitro, Rln est chémocinétique mais pas chémoattractante. In vivo, Rln induit le détachement et la dispersion des CSNP de la zone sousventriculaire (SVZ) hors du courant rostral de migration (RMS) où elles sont sinon confinées. Rln potentialise le recrutement spontané des CSPN vers les lésions démyélinisantes où un tiers deviennent oligodendrocytaires. L'expression endogène de Rln est stimulée après lésion. Les animaux sans voie de signalisation Rln ont un recrutement réduit des CSPN vers les lésions.Ces résultats révèlent que Rln est un arbitre clef de la migration post-lésionnelle des CSPN et que permettre au CSPN de sortir du RMS est une stratégie thérapeutique prometteuse. / Neural stem/ progenitor cell (NSPC) migration in the adult brain is crucial for brain repair. Reelin (Rln) is an extracellular matrix protein regulating neuron positioning during coricogenesis. We reveal new roles of Rln in adult NSPC migration. In vitro, Rln promotes detachment, is chemokinetic but not chemoattractant. After Rln ectopic overexpression in the healthly brain, subventricular zone (SVZ) NSPC detach from the rostal migratory stream (RMS) in which they are normally restricted, and disperse in adjacent fiber tracts. Rln over-expression potentiates spontaneous cell recruitment to demyelinated lesion and one third of the NSPC recruited adopt an oligodendrocytic phenotype. Rln expression is spontaneously upregulated after lesion, and disruption of its signaling pathway results in reduced NSPC recruitment toward lesion. Our study reveals that Rln is a key player of post-lesional NSPC migration and that allowing NSPC to escape from RMS is a promising therapeutic approach

No description available.

Myelin facilitates the timely, efficient conduction of action potentials along axons. Made by Schwann cells (SCs) in the PNS, myelin is unique in that it is composed of a high percentage of lipids, particularly galactolipids. Sulfatide, one such galactolipid, is made by cerebroside sulfotransferase (CST) and has been shown to play a role in organizing paranodal domains in myelinated axons. However less is known regarding the involvement of sulfatide in the establishment and maintenance of the node, of particular interest as it is responsible for the potentiation of action potentials along the axon. Using immunohistochemical and, to a lesser extent, electron microscopic techniques, we confirm that sulfatide is essential for organization of the paranode. Our data further shows that neuronal nodal clustering and maintenance is paranode-independent, thus not reliant on sulfatide, demonstrating that 1) distinct mechanisms exist for nodal and paranodal organization 2) distinct mechanisms for nodal stability exist in the PNS versus the CNS. Interestingly, maintenance of the SC nodal protein, gliomedin, is sulfatide-dependent, indicating that sulfatide is differentially important for nodal organization depending on the cell of origin. Finally, we observe that despite compromised molecular organization of the nodal and paranodal domains in the absence of sulfatide, the gross structure is preserved, therefore a disconnect exists between molecular and structural organization.