Nanotechnology is an emerging inter-disciplinary paradigm which encompasses diverse fields of science and engineering converge at the nanoscale. This nanoscale science and nanostructure engineering have well demonstrated in the fabrication of sensors/transducers devices with faster response time and better sensitivity then the planer version of the sensor’s configurations. Nanotechnology is not just to grow/fabricate nanostructures by just mixing nanoscale materials together but it requires the ability to understand and to precisely manipulate and control of the developed nanomaterials in a useful way. Nanotechnology is aiding to substantially improve, even revolutionize, many technology and industry sectors like information technology, energy, environmental science, medicine/medical instrumentation, homeland security, food safety, and transportation, among many others. Such applications of nanotechnology are delivering in both expected and unexpected ways on nanotechnology’s promise to benefit the society. The semiconductor ZnO with wide band gap (~ 3.37 eV) is a distinguish and unique material and its nanostructures have attracted great attention among the researchers due to its peculiar properties such as large exciton binding energy (60 meV) at room temperature, the high electron mobility, high thermal conductivity, good transparency and easiness of fabricating it in the different type of nanostructures. Based on all these fascinating properties, ZnO have been chosen as a suitable material for the fabrication of photonic, transducers/sensors, piezoelectric, transparent and spin electronics devices etc. The objective of the current study is to highlight the recent developments in materials and techniques for electrochemical sensing and hetrostructure light emitting diodes (LEDs) luminescence properties based on the different ZnO nanostructures. The sensor devices fabricated and characterized in the work were applied to determine and monitor the real changes of the chemical or biochemical species. We have successfully demonstrated the application of our fabricated devices as primary transducers/sensors for the determination of extracellular glucose and the glucose inside the human fat cells and frog cells using the potentiometric technique. Moreover, the fabricated ZnO based nanosensors have also been applied for the selective determination of uric acid, urea and metal ions successfully. This thesis relates specifically to zinc oxide nanostructure based electrochemical sensors and photonic device (LED) applications.

Nanoporous (np) metals and alloys are the subject of increasing research attention due to their high surface-area-to-volume ratio. Numerous methods exist to create np metals, with dealloying being a common approach. By dissolving one or more elements from certain alloy systems, porous structure can be generated. Utilizing this method, multiple np metals, including np-Ni, np-Ir, and np-Au were created. By carefully adjusting precursor type and dealloying conditions for each system, nanoporous Ni/Ir/Au with different morphologies and even controllable ligament/pore size were achieved. The mechanical behavior of porous materials is related to their fully dense counterparts by scaling equations. Established scaling laws exist and are widely applied for low relative density, micro- and macro-scale open-cell porous materials. However, these laws are not directly applicable to nanoporous metals, due to higher relative density and nanoscale cells. In this study, scaling laws were reviewed in light of the thermomechanical behavior of multilayer np-Ir thin films subjected to thermal cycling. Thermal cycling allows measurement of biaxial modulus from thermoelastic segments, and also causes film thickness to contract, with increases in relative density. A modified scaling equation was generated for biaxial modulus of np-Ir, and differed significantly from the classic equation.

Automated and continuous processes are the future trends in downstream protein purification. A functionalized nanometer-scale membrane electrode system, mimicking the function of cell wall transporters, can selectively capture genetically modified proteins and subsequently pump them through the system under programmed voltage pulses. Numerical study of the two-step pulse pumping cycles coupled with experimental His-GFP releasing study reveals the optimal 14s/1s pumping/repel pulse pumping condition at 10 mM bulk imidazole concentration in the permeate side. A separation factor for GFP: BSA of 9.7 was achieved with observed GFP electrophoretic mobility of 3.1×10-6 cm2 s-1 V-1 at 10 mM bulk imidazole concentration and 14 s/1 s pumping/repel duration. The purification of His6-OleD Loki variant directly from crude E. coli extracts expression broth was demonstrated using the pulse pumping process, simplifying the separation process as well as reducing biopharmaceutical production costs. The enzymatic reactions showed that His6-OleD Loki was still active after purification. A nanoporous membrane/electrode system with directed flow carrying reagents to sequentially attached enzymes to mimic nature’s enzymes-complex system was demonstrated. The substrates residence time on the immobilized enzyme can be precisely controlled by changing the pumping rate and thereby prevent a secondary hydrolysis reaction. Immobilized enzyme showed long term storage longevity with activity half-life of 50 days at 4℃ and the ability to be regenerated. One-step immobilization and purification of His-tagged OleD Loki variant directly from expression broth, yielded 98% Uridine Diphosphate glycosylation and 80% 4-methylumbelliferone glycosylation conversion efficiency for the sequential reaction. A flow-through electroporation system, based on a novel membrane/electrode design, for the delivery of membrane-impermeant molecules into Model Leukocyte cells was demonstrated. The ability to apply low voltage between two short distance electrodes contributes to high cell viability. The flow-through system can be easily scaled-up by varying the micro-fluidic channel geometry and/or the applied voltage pulse frequency. More importantly, the system allows the electrophoretical pumping of molecules from the reservoir across the membrane/electrode system to the micro-fluidic channel for transfection, which reduces large amount of reagents used.

De nouveaux matériaux métalliques nanoporeux à base d’éléments n’appartenant pas à la famille du Pt ont été synthétisés par le "dealloying" (ou dissolution sélective) d’alliages rapidement solidifiés. L’objectif est d’examiner les propriétés catalytiques en vue d’utilisation dans des piles à combustible alcalines directes ou en tant que substrats actifs pour la spectroscopie SERS. Des surfaces et des matrices nanostructurées de cuivre de morphologie très fines et une forte surface spécifique ont été obtenues respectivement par le dealloying aqueux de rubans CuxCa100-x amorphe (35 <x< 80 % at.) et par le dellaoying chimique d’échantillons massifs de Cu90(HfZr)10. Des substrats nanoporeux d’Ag et de Co ont été produits par dealloying en retirant les phases riches en Cu et Si de rubans M38,75Cu38,75Si22,5 cristallin (avec M = Co ou Ag). En complément des techniques de caractérisations conventionnelles, toutes les structures nanoporeuses ont pu être reconstruites par nanotomographie à partir de découpes FIB. Des outils numériques spécifiques à la nanotomographie de visualisation et de cartographie en 3 dimensions ont permis de révéler la diversité morphologique des trois systèmes avec la porosité traversante. Ces matériaux ont pour la première fois été étudiés pour leur utilisation pratique en tant que catalyseurs anodiques auto-supportés. Cette étude suggére qu’ils constituent une alternative sérieuse aux composites commerciaux instables à base de Pt et supportés par du C. Des essais électrochimiques en demi-cellule ont montré une excellente activité catalytique vis-à-vis de l’oxydation d’un combustible en borane ainsi qu’une stabilité de fonctionnement supérieure dans un environnement alcalin en comparaison d’un catalyseur Pt/C. Le Co nanoporeux a montré dans des conditions similaires une meilleure efficacité mais une stabilité moindre, attribuée à la composition chimique complexe de son réseau poreux. Le Cu nanoporeux n’a pas été étudié pour les applications mentionnées précédemment en raison de sa grande fragilité. Il est suggéré d’améliorer la voie de synthèse de son précurseur pour augmenter sa tenue mécanique. Enfin le comportement mécanique de ces nouveaux matériaux métalliques nanoporeux a été abordé par des mesures de nanoindentation sur des substrats nanoporeux d’Ag. L’étude a permis de proposer un modèle phénoménologique de dépendance entre la charge et le déplacement pour cette classe de matériaux métalliques. / New nanoporous metallic materials based on non-Pt group metals have been synthesized via dealloying of rapidly solidified alloys and aimed to demonstrate competitive catalytic performance in the field of direct alkaline fuel cells and SERS-active substrates. Nanostructured copper surface and nanoporous copper matrix with very fine morphology and specific surface area were obtained by chemical dealloying of bulk Cu90(HfZr)10 and melt-spun amorphous CuxCa100-x (x ranging from 35 to 80 at.%) family of alloys accordingly. Nanoporous silver and cobalt substrates were produced by dealloying of M38.75Cu38.75Si22.5 crystalline ribbons (M = Co and Ag) as a result of the removal of Cu and Si-rich phases. In addition to conventional characterization methods, all nanoporous structures have been reconstructed by FIB-nanotomography, clearly exposing the morphological diversity of the three systems with transversal porosity when visualized and color-mapped in 3D by a special numerical tomography tool. It is for the first time that a practical significance of these materials has been explored in the scope of self-supported anodic catalysts, suggested throughout this study as an alternative to the unstable Pt-based carbon-supported commercial composites. Half-cell electrochemical tests demonstrated an excellent catalytic activity towards the oxidation of a borane fuel and superior stability of functioning in the alkaline environment compared to Pt/C catalyst. In similar conditions, nanoporous Co showed higher efficiency but lower stability, attributed to the complex chemical composition of its porous scaffold. Nanoporous Cu has not been exploited for the mentioned applications due to its high brittleness and is suggested to go through improvements on the step of precursor synthesis. Lastly, while exploring the mechanical behavior of the NPMs by instrumented nanoindentation of different nanoporous Ag substrates, a load-displacement dependence phenomenological model has been suggested for this class of metallic materials

abstract: This research examines several critical aspects of the so-called "film induced cleavage" model of stress corrosion cracking using silver-gold alloys as the parent-phase material. The model hypothesizes that the corrosion generates a brittle nanoporous film, which subsequently fractures forming a high-speed crack that is injected into the uncorroded parent-phase alloy. This high speed crack owing to its kinetic energy can penetrate beyond the corroded layer into the parent phase and thus effectively reducing strength of the parent phase. Silver-gold alloys provide an ideal system to study this effect, as hydrogen effect can be ruled out on thermodynamic basis. During corrosion of the silver-gold alloy, the less noble metal i.e. silver is removed from the system leaving behind a nanoporous gold (NPG) layer. In the case of polycrystalline material, this corrosion process proceeds deeper along the grain boundary than the matrix grain. All of the cracks with apparent penetration beyond the corroded (dealloyed) layer are intergranular. Our aim was to study the crack penetration depth along the grain boundary to ascertain whether the penetration occurs past the grain-boundary dealloyed depth. EDS and imaging in high-resolution aberration corrected scanning transmission electron microscope (STEM) and atom probe tomography (APT) have been used to evaluate the grain boundary corrosion depth. The mechanical properties of monolithic NPG are also studied. The motivation behind this is two-fold. The crack injection depth depends on the speed of the crack formed in the nanoporous layer, which in turn depends on the mechanical properties of the NPG. Also NPG has potential applications in actuation, sensing and catalysis. The measured value of the Young's modulus of NPG with 40 nm ligament size and 28% density was ~ 2.5 GPa and the Poisson's ratio was ~ 0.20. The fracture stress was observed to be ~ 11-13 MPa. There was no significant change observed between these mechanical properties on oxidation of NPG at 1.4 V. The fracture toughness value for the NPG was ~ 10 J/m2. Also dynamic fracture tests showed that the NPG is capable of supporting crack velocities ~ 100 - 180 m/s. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Materials Science and Engineering 2014

Avec l'augmentation du nombre de dispositifs utilisant des nanostructures, tels les nanofils pour les systèmes photovoltaïques, les détecteurs, etc., il devient nécessaire de développer des techniques de fabrication de réseau d'objets de dimensions nanométrique à faible coût. Dans cette étude, nous utilisons les propriétés d'auto-assemblage combinées avec des méthodes « descendantes » pour créer des réseaux de nanostructures très denses et très organisés. En effet, nous proposons de produire des réseaux hexagonaux parfaits d'alumine poreuse (AAO) et de les utiliser pour la croissance confinée de fils de silicium (Si) par la technique de dépôt chimique en phase vapeur (CVD).L'AAO est naturellement obtenue par oxydation de l'aluminium dans un acide, mais ce processus seul n'apporte qu'une organisation des pores très faible. Nous présentons un procédé innovant utilisant la lithographie par nano-impression thermique pour pré-texturer l'aluminium avant son anodisation. Ainsi, nous obtenons des réseaux poreux hexagonaux parfait sur des surfaces allant jusqu'à 4 cm ². Toutes les caractéristiques géométriques de la membrane poreuse peuvent être ajustées en faisant varier les paramètres expérimentaux de l'anodisation. En outre, pour augmenter la densité du réseau et réduire le coût de fabrication du moule d'impression, nous avons développé des structures originales avec une croissance mixte de pores guidées et générer naturellement.Afin d'étudier les caractéristiques de ces réseaux et suivre leur évolution au cours de leur formation, nous présentons les résultats d'une étude de diffusion des rayons X aux petits angles réalisée in situ pendant la formation de l'AAO.L'AAO est finalement utilisée comme matrice guide pour la croissance auto-organisée de fils de Si par CVD. Nous présentons donc des réseaux hexagonaux parfaits de nanofils crus perpendiculairement à la direction <100 > des substrats de silicium. Les différentes étapes du procédé, du dépôt de catalyseur à la croissance des fils sont présentées. Grâce à cette technique, nous obtenons des densités de fils allant jusqu'à 9.109 cm-2 et la dispersion des diamètres est meilleure que lors d'une croissance colloïdale (CVD). La composition chimique et l'orientation cristalline des nanofils confirme qu'ils sont en silicium et que nous avons à la fois des orientations <100> et <111>. Nous avons étudié également la conductivité entre le sommet des fils et le substrat grâce à la technique du microscope à force atomique conducteur. / With the increased number of devices using functional nanostructures, e.g nanowires for photovoltaic systems, detector etc, it becomes of great importance to develop low-cost and versatile fabrication of systems with nano-objects. In this study, self-assembly properties combined with top-down methods were used to create highly dense and organized nanostructures. Indeed, flawless hexagonal porous anodic alumina arrays (PAA) were successfully used as a template for the epitaxial Silicon (Si) nanowires (NW) growth in a chemical vapor deposition reactor (CVD).PAA is naturally obtained by oxidation of aluminum in acid; however this simple process brings a poor pores organization. We present an innovative route using Thermal NanoImprint Lithography previous to aluminum anodization to prepare perfect hexagonal nanopore array on large surface (4 cm²). All the geometrical characteristics of the porous membrane can be adjusted by varying experimental parameters. Furthermore, to increase the density of the array and reduce the fabrication cost of the imprint mould, original structures with a mixed growth of NIL-guided pores and generation of naturally-guided pores (induced pores) have been developed. Shapes of the pores can be modified varying the electrolyte.To know the characteristic of these arrays and their evolution during formation, we will present the results of the hitherto unseen In Situ study under Grazing Incidence Small Angle X-ray Scattering of PAA formation.The PAA is finally used as templates for the self-organized Si NW growth in a CVD reactor. Hexagonal nanowire arrays grown perpendicularly to <100> silicon substrates were successfully produced. The different process steps from the catalyst deposition to the planarization of the array are presented. The quality of the final silicon array is discussed. Densities up to 9*109 NW.cm-2 and diameter dispersion better than colloidal growth are achieved. The chemical composition and the crystalline orientation of the nanowires confirms the nanowires are in silicon and a mix between <100> and <111> orientation. We also measured the conductivity between the top of the vertical nanowire and the substrate with conductive atomic force microscopy.

abstract: Dealloying induced stress corrosion cracking is particularly relevant in energy conversion systems (both nuclear and fossil fuel) as many failures in alloys such as austenitic stainless steel and nickel-based systems result directly from dealloying. This study provides evidence of the role of unstable dynamic fracture processes in dealloying induced stress-corrosion cracking of face-centered cubic alloys. Corrosion of such alloys often results in the formation of a brittle nanoporous layer which we hypothesize serves to nucleate a crack that owing to dynamic effects penetrates into the un-dealloyed parent phase alloy. Thus, since there is essentially a purely mechanical component of cracking, stress corrosion crack propagation rates can be significantly larger than that predicted from electrochemical parameters. The main objective of this work is to examine and test this hypothesis under conditions relevant to stress corrosion cracking. Silver-gold alloys serve as a model system for this study since hydrogen effects can be neglected on a thermodynamic basis, which allows us to focus on a single cracking mechanism. In order to study various aspects of this problem, the dynamic fracture properties of monolithic nanoporous gold (NPG) were examined in air and under electrochemical conditions relevant to stress corrosion cracking. The detailed processes associated with the crack injection phenomenon were also examined by forming dealloyed nanoporous layers of prescribed properties on un-dealloyed parent phase structures and measuring crack penetration distances. Dynamic fracture in monolithic NPG and in crack injection experiments was examined using high-speed (106 frames s-1) digital photography. The tunable set of experimental parameters included the NPG length scale (20-40 nm), thickness of the dealloyed layer (10-3000 nm) and the electrochemical potential (0.5-1.5 V). The results of crack injection experiments were characterized using the dual-beam focused ion beam/scanning electron microscopy. Together these tools allow us to very accurately examine the detailed structure and composition of dealloyed grain boundaries and compare crack injection distances to the depth of dealloying. The results of this work should provide a basis for new mathematical modeling of dealloying induced stress corrosion cracking while providing a sound physical basis for the design of new alloys that may not be susceptible to this form of cracking. Additionally, the obtained results should be of broad interest to researchers interested in the fracture properties of nano-structured materials. The findings will open up new avenues of research apart from any implications the study may have for stress corrosion cracking. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Materials Science and Engineering 2012

CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeiÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior / Os corantes sintÃticos sÃo um dos poluentes mais comuns e frequentemente encontrados na indÃstria tÃxtil. A destinaÃÃo de esgoto contendo corantes para corpos de Ãgua à extremamente importante do ponto de vista ambiental, jà que mesmo em baixas concentraÃÃes os corantes podem ser altamente tÃxicos para sistemas aquÃticos. A elevada toxicidade à um dos grandes problemas de Ãguas residuais contendo corantes. Este estudo examinou como adsorventes nanoporosos trÃs materiais sendo um HidrÃxido Duplo Lamelar (HDL â Mg/Al), uma argila pilarizada (Al-PILC) e um carbono ativado comercial (GAC-Norit 1240) avaliando seus comportamentos na remoÃÃo dos corantes Reativo Preto 5 (RP5), Azul de Metileno (AM) e Ãcido Azul 25 (AA25). Os materiais baseados em argilas naturais e sintetizadas em laboratÃrio, assim como o carbono ativado, foram caracterizados por difraÃÃo de raios X, BET e FTIR, a fim de se obter informaÃÃo sobre suas caracteristicas estruturais e texturais. Experimentos em batelada utilizando um sistema de tanques agitados foram realizados para averiguar o efeito do pH do meio, da concentraÃÃo inicial de corante, do tempo de contato e da forÃa iÃnica do meio na adsorÃÃo dos corantes. Para o sistema de tanques agitados foram utilizados um agitador rotatÃrio orbital e tubos de acrÃlico contendo 20 mL de soluÃÃes de corantes em contato com 0,015 g dos adsorventes. As concentraÃÃes de equilÃbrio de cada corante foram determinadas em espectrofotÃmetro UV/Vis. A fim de descrever o comportamento das isotermas de adsorÃÃo, os dados de equilÃbrio foram correlacionados com o modelo de Langmuir (L). A contribuiÃÃo dos parÃmetros de transferÃncia de massa na cinÃtica de adsorÃÃo dos corantes RP5, AA25 e AM em carbono ativado tambÃm foi investigada. Estes dados fundamentais forneceram uma melhor compreensÃo dos mecanismos de transferÃncia de massa e dinÃmica difusional do sistema. O comportamento do pH e da forÃa iÃnica do meio foi de suma importÃncia para o entendimento dos processos de adsorÃÃo nos respectivos materiais para cada corante analisado. O pH das soluÃÃes aquosas foi bastante diferenciado, o qual foi dependente das caracterÃsitcas aniÃnicas e catiÃnicas dos materiais e dos corantes. De acordo com a anÃlise estatÃstica, o modelo de Langmuir foi adequado para representar os dados de adsorÃÃo dos corantes comprovado pela combinaÃÃo das constantes de ligaÃÃo do modelo, evidenciando uma forte interaÃÃo adsorvente-adsorbato. Pode-se notar que as cinÃticas de adsorÃÃo de corantes seguem um comportamento semelhante, com uma queda brusca da concentraÃÃo inicial de corante no sobrenadante nos primeiros momentos de contato, atingindo o equilÃbrio em aproximadamente 60 minutos, do que se pode inferir uma difusÃo molecular intrapartÃcula. As quantidades adsorvidas dos trÃs materiais indicaram um melhor desempenho obtido para o carbono ativado. / Synthetic dyes are one of the most common pollutants and often found in the textile industry. The disposal of wastewater containing dyes on water bodies is extremely important from an environmental standpoint, since the dyes even at low concentrations can be highly toxic to aquatic systems. The high stability and toxicity are the major problem in the treatment of wastewater containing dyes. This study examined three nanoporous adsorbents materials: a lamellar double hydroxide (LDH-Mg/Al), pillared clay (Al-PILC) and a commercial activated carbon (Norit GAC-1240), assessing hair performance in the removal of dyes Reactive Black 5 (RB5), Methylene Blue (MB) and Acid Blue 25 (AB25) used in the textile industry. The materials based on natural clays synthesized in the laboratory, and activated carbons were characterized by XRD, BET and FTIR, in order to obtain information about their structural and textural characteristics. Experiments using a batch stirred tank system were performed to investigate the effect of pH, the initial concentration of dye, contact time and ionic strength through adsorption of the dyes. For the system of stirred tanks a rotary shaker and acrylic tubes were used containing 20 mL of dye solutions in contact with 0.015 g of adsorbent. The equilibrium concentration of each dye was determined with a spectrophotometer UV/Vis. In order to describe the behavior of adsorption isotherms, the equilibrium data were correlated with the Langmuir model (L). The contribution of mass transfer parameters on the kinetics of adsorption of dyes RP5, AB25 and MB on activated carbon was also investigated. These data provide a basic understanding of mechanisms of mass transfer and dynamic diffusional system. The behavior of pH and ionic strength of the medium was very important for understanding of adsorption processes in the respective materials for each dye examined. The pH of the aqueous solutions was greatly different, which was dependent on characteristics anionic and cationic materials and colorants. According to statistical analysis, the Langmuir model was adequate to represent the data of adsorption of dyes shown. It may be noted that the kinetics of adsorption of dyes follow a similar behavior, with a sharp drop of the dye initial concentration in the supernatant in the first moments of contact, reaching the equilibrium in approximately 100 minutes. The adsorbed amounts of the three materials showed a revealed better performance obtained for activated carbon.

A thorough study on the distribution of defect-related active energy levels has been performed on nanocrystalline TiO2. Films have been deposited on thick-alumina printed circuit boards equipped with electrical contacts, heater and temperature sensors, to carry out a detailed thermally stimulated currents analysis on a wide temperature range (5-630 K), in view to evidence contributions from shallow to deep energy levels within the gap. Data have been processed by numerically modelling electrical transport. The model considers both free and hopping contribution to conduction, a density of states characterized by an exponential tail of localized states below the conduction band and the convolution of standard Thermally Stimulated Currents (TSC) emissions with gaussian distributions to take into account the variability in energy due to local perturbations in the highly disordered network. Results show that in the low temperature range, up to 200 K, hopping within the exponential band tail represents the main contribution to electrical conduction. Above room temperature, electrical conduction is dominated by free carriers contribution and by emissions from deep energy levels, with a defect density ranging within 10(14)-10(18) cm(-3), associated with physio- and chemi-sorbed water vapour, OH groups and to oxygen vacancies.

Poröse Kohlenstoffmaterialien zeichnen sich durch hohe spezifische Oberflächen und Porenvolumina, eine gute elektrische Leitfähigkeit sowie hohe mechanische und chemische Stabilität aus. Sie werden in Anwendungen wie der Gasspeicherung oder der elektrochemischen Energiespeicherung eingesetzt. Besondere Aufmerksamkeit erfährt momentan die Energiespeicherung, unter anderem durch die fortschreitende Verbreitung der Elektromobilität. Als besonders effizient haben sich elektrochemische Energiespeichermaterialien, zum Beispiel für Doppelschichtkondensatoren (EDLCs) und Batterien, herausgestellt. Ein vielversprechendes Batteriesystem ist die Lithium-Schwefel-Batterie (LiS-Batterie). Mit diesem System können wesentlich höhere gravimetrische Energiedichten als mit Lithium-Ionen-Batterien erreicht werden. Poröser Kohlenstoff stellt aufgrund der hohen Porosität, der guten elektrischen Leitfähigkeit und der chemischen Beständigkeit ein ideales Elektrodenmaterial für die Anwendung sowohl in EDLCs als auch in LiS-Batterien dar. Bei den im industriellen Maßstab am häufigsten eingesetzten Aktivkohlen ist nachteilig, dass während der Synthese nur begrenzte Kontrolle über das Porensystem vorhanden ist. Zudem sind die Poren oft flaschenhalsartig, was zu einer schlechten Zugänglichkeit des Porensystems führt und dadurch den Stofftransport limitiert. Eine verbesserte Kontrolle über das Porennetzwerk bieten das Templatverfahren oder die Synthese von Kohlenstoffen aus Carbiden. Diese Methoden ermöglichen es zudem, Poren unterschiedlicher Größe, das heißt, ein hierarchisches Porensystem, einzubringen. Dies ist vorteilhaft für Prozesse, in denen sowohl eine hohe Adsorptionskapazität als auch ein schneller Stofftransport notwendig sind. Die meisten dieser Synthesen haben die Nachteile, dass sie komplex sind und viel Abfall produzieren. Eine vergleichbar neue Methode zur Herstellung von hierarchischen Kohlenstoffen ist die Synthese von Kroll-Kohlenstoffen über eine reduktive Carbochlorierung. Dieses Verfahren ist dem Schlüsselschritt des Kroll-Prozesses zur Herstellung von Titan nachempfunden. Dafür werden oxidische Nanopartikel mit Kohlenstoff beschichtet und durch Behandlung mit heißem Chlorgas in Kohlenstoff überführt. Diese Synthese ermöglicht neben der Kontrolle der Mesoporengröße über die Größe der Nanopartikel gleichzeitig die Einbringung von Mikroporen durch das Ätzen von Kohlenstoff während der Carbochlorierung, sodass in wenigen Syntheseschritten ein hierarchisches Porensystem generiert werden kann. In dieser Arbeit wurde untersucht, ob sich der Ansatz der Carbochlorierung auf weitere Systeme übertragen lässt. Durch postsynthetische Aktivierung wurde die Porosität von Kroll-Kohlenstoff unter Erhalt der Porenstruktur gesteigert. So war es möglich, Kohlenstoffe mit spezifischen Oberflächen von mehr als 2700 m²/g und Porenvolumina von 3 cm³/g zu synthetisieren. Die Mesoporenstruktur konnte aufrechterhalten werden, während sowohl der Anteil von Meso- als auch Mikroporen erhöht werden konnte. Aktivierter Kroll-Kohlenstoff wurde in EDLCs als Elektrodenmaterial untersucht. Mit 1 M Schwefelsäure als Elektrolyt konnten spezifische Kapazitäten von 160 F/g über galvanostatische Lade-/Entlademessungen erreicht werden, wobei bei hohen Lade-/Entladeströmen von 10 A/g noch 87 % der Maximalkapazität abgerufen werden konnten. Weiterhin wurde der Frage nachgegangen, ob mittels Carbochlorierung geordnete mesoporöse Kohlenstoffe synthetisiert werden können. Dafür wurden sowohl Harttemplat- als auch Weichtemplatmethoden eingesetzt. Im Harttemplatverfahren war es möglich, geordneten mesoporösen Kohlenstoff DUT-118 zu synthetisieren.7 DUT-118 weist eine höhere spezifische Oberfläche und ein höheres Porenvolumen im Vergleich zu Kohlenstoff auf, der über das klassische „Nanocasting“ hergestellt wird. Durch die Carbochlorierung kann zudem der Mikroporenanteil des Materials im Vergleich zur klassischen Templatentfernung gesteigert werden, was durch Präadsorptionsexperimente mit n-Nonan nachgewiesen wurde. In einer weichtemplatgestützten Synthese konnte geordneter mesoporöser Kohlenstoff DUT-119 aus Oxid/Kohlenstoff-Kompositen mittels Carbochlorierung synthetisiert werden. DUT-119 verfügt über eine spezifische Oberfläche von über 2200 m²/g, ein Porenvolumen von mehr als 2 cm³/g und ein hierarchisches Porensystem. Aufgrund des hierarchischen Mikro-/Mesoporensystems ist DUT-119 hervorragend als Kathodenmatrix in LiS-Batterien geeignet. Besonders hervorzuheben ist die geringe Menge an eingesetztem Elektrolyt von nur 5 μL/mgSchwefel. Die gefertigte Zelle ist über 50 Zyklen stabil und verfügt über eine herausragende Flächenkapazität von 3,7 mAh/cm² nach 50 Zyklen. Verstärkt im Fokus der Forschung stehen Kohlenstoffe, welche mit Heteroatomen dotiert sind. Durch Dotierung können die Eigenschaften der Kohlenstoffe hinsichtlich Polarität oder elektrochemischer Eigenschaften optimiert werden.8,9 Deshalb wurde untersucht, ob über die Carbochlorierung stickstoffdotierter Kohlenstoff synthetisiert werden kann. Dafür wurde ein metallorganisches Netzwerk (MOF) zu Kroll-Kohlenstoff DUT-127 umgesetzt. In Abhängigkeit von der Synthesetemperatur von 600–900 °C konnten spezifische Oberflächen von 1450–2750 m²/g und Porenvolumina zwischen 0,8 und 2 cm³/g erreicht werden. Da das eingesetzte MOF Aminogruppen enthielt, sind in DUT-127 Stickstoffdotierungen vorhanden, was zu einer verringerten Hydrophobie führt. DUT-127 wurde als Elektrodenmaterial in EDLCs eingesetzt. Mit 1 M Schwefelsäure konnten spezifische Kapazitäten von 165 F/g, ermittelt über galvanostatische Lade-/Entlademessungen, erreicht werden. Besonders bei hohen Lade-/Entladeströmen von 12,5 A/g konnten über 90 % der maximalen Kapazität abgerufen werden. Weiterhin ist die hohe Arbeitsfrequenz von über 25 Hz hervorzuheben. Beides wird durch die gute Benetzbarkeit, das ausgeprägte Transportporensystem sowie die geringe Partikelgröße ermöglicht. Der große Vorteil der Synthese von Kroll-Kohlenstoffen über die Carbochlorierung ist der Verzicht auf Lösemittel während der Templatentfernung. Wünschenswert ist es, zukünftig ebenfalls die Synthese der Präkursoren und Template möglichst lösemittelfrei zu gestalten. Die Porenstruktur (Textur) eines porösen Materials bestimmt in großem Maße die Leistungsfähigkeit in einer bestimmten Anwendung. Deshalb wird der exakten Charakterisierung des Porensystems viel Aufmerksamkeit gewidmet. Neben Methoden wie der Gasadsorption sind bildgebende Verfahren ein wichtiges Hilfsmittel, um Informationen über Porengröße, -geometrie und -konnektivität zu erhalten. In einem ersten „Proof of Concept“ wurden die Porensysteme nanoporöser Materialien mit definierter Porenstruktur durch Röntgenmikroskopie untersucht. Dabei konnten Poren bis zu einer Größe von etwa 60 nm aufgelöst werden. Weiterhin war es möglich, aus den aufgenommenen Bilderserien Rekonstruktionen zu erstellen, wodurch Einblicke in das Innere des Partikels möglich wurden. Für die erfolgreiche Rekonstruktion einer Bilderserie ist es notwendig, dass diese optimal ausgerichtet ist. Aufgrund der hohen Uniformität der untersuchten Proben ist dies ein anspruchsvoller Prozess, der noch weiter optimiert werden muss. Dadurch könnten weitere Einblicke in die untersuchten Proben, beispielsweise durch eine quantitative Diskussion der Porosität, gewonnen werden.