Thesis (Ph.D)--Chemical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 2009. / Committee Chair: Rousseau, Ronald; Committee Member: Meredith, Carson; Committee Member: Prausnitz, Mark; Committee Member: Teja, Amyn; Committee Member: Wilkinson, Angus. Part of the SMARTech Electronic Thesis and Dissertation Collection.

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Thesis (Ph. D.)--West Virginia University, 2001. / Title from document title page. Document formatted into pages; contains viii, 199 p. : ill. (some col.). Vita. Includes abstract. Includes bibliographical references (p. 176-195).

Thesis (M.S.)--West Virginia University, 2003. / Title from document title page. Document formatted into pages; contains vi, 42 p. : ill. Includes abstract. Includes bibliographical references (p. 35-42).

Foram realizados estudos buscando otimizar as condições reacionais para obtenção de um sal (QN) de naproxeno (NAP) e o biopolímero quitosana (QP). Essa matriz (QN) foi utilizada para o estudo do equilíbrio de dissociação do anti-inflamatório. Para tanto, foram estudadas as melhores condições em relação aos parâmetros tempo reacional, temperatura de reação e razão molar dos reagentes. Os produtos foram caracterizados por ressonância magnética nuclear de hidrogênio e carbono 13, 1H e 13C RMN, espectroscopia vibracional na região do infravermelho com transformada de Fourier, FTIR, espectroscopia eletrônica na região do ultravioleta-visível na modalidade reflectância difusa, UV-vis, difração de raios X (DRX) e técnicas termoanalíticas: termogravimetria (TG), análise térmica diferencial (DTA) e calorimetria exploratória diferencial (DSC). Além disso, estudou-se a evolução dos gases por termogravimetria acoplada a espectroscopia vibracional na região do infravermelho (TG-FTIR). Verificou-se que o maior rendimento de sal foi obtido nas seguintes condições reacionais: 24 horas, temperatura de 60°C e razão molar de 1 mol de QP para 1,05 mol de NAP. Este produto de reação foi chamado de QN1. Neste caso, quando calculado o grau de substituição (GS) por meio da técnica de RMN 13C, observou-se um GS de 19,1 %, sugerindo uma neutralização do grupo NH2 ligado ao C2 do biopolímero com o grupo COOH presente no fármaco. Nos espectros de FTIR foram observadas bandas que correspondem a formação de um produto diferente de QP e NAP, corroborando com a hipóstese de formação do sal QN1. No espectro do UV-vis notou-se as três bandas referentes à absorção dos grupos cromóforos pressentes no sal. Nos difratogramas, verificou-se um pico na região de ~22Ø em QN1, sendo esse já observado como um ombro em QP, porém houve um incremento, além disso, alterações no índice de cristalinidade da quitosana, sugeriram modificações na sua estrutura semicristalina após reação com o NAP. As curvas TG/DTG/DTA mostraram alterações no comportamento térmico do QN1 em relação à QP, evidenciou que a modificação leva a mudanças no comportamento térmico e sugerem a presença de NAP na matriz biopolimérica. A caracterização corroborou hipótese de formação do sal, QN1, pois houveram modificações nos intervalos de perda de massa, assim como, pela razão entre a terceira e segunda perda de massa, pode-se verificar um ganho de estabilidade. Com objetivo de melhorar a capacidade de interação NAP-QP, realizou-se a reticulação das cadeias de quitosana com epicloridrina. No entanto, a reação teve um menor rendimento quando comparada com o sal não reticulado. Verificou-se pelas diferentes técnicas de caracterização, sobretudo, por RMN 13C que, ao invés de organizar e deixar os grupos amino ainda mais suscetíveis à reação, a estrutura da quitosana organizou-se de forma que houve menos interação com o fármaco. Portanto, para os sais QN1 e QPEPIN1 foi realizado o estudo do equilíbrio de dissociação por HPLC, em diferentes pHs 2,00 e 7,00, simulando condições do intestino e estômago, afim de verificar o seu perfil de dissociação e comportamento nessas soluções. Desse modo, verificou-se que em pH 2,00 para QN1 ocorre a dissociação mais rapidamente quando comparada com pH 7,00. Já o sal reticulado QPEPIN1, sua dissociação em pH 2,00 é mais lenta quando comparada com pH 7,00. / Studies were carried out to optimize the reaction conditions to obtain a naproxen (NAP) salt (QN) and the chitosan biopolymer (QP). This matrix (QN) was used for the study of anti-inflammatory dissociation equilibrium. For this, the best conditions were studied in relation to the parameters reaction time, reaction temperature and molar ratio of the reactants. The products were characterized by nuclear magnetic resonance of hydrogen and carbon 13, 1H and 13C NMR, Fourier transform infrared vibration spectroscopy, FTIR, ultraviolet-visible electronic spectroscopy in the diffuse reflectance, UV-vis, diffraction (XRD) and thermoanalytical techniques: thermogravimetry (TG), differential thermal analysis (DTA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). In addition, the evolution of gases by thermogravimetry coupled to infrared vibrational spectroscopy (TG-FTIR) was studied. It was found that the higher salt yield was obtained under the following reaction conditions: 24 hours, temperature of 60 ° C and molar ratio of 1 mol of QP to 1.05 mol of NAP. This reaction product was called QN1. In this case, when calculating the degree of substitution (GS) by the 13C NMR technique, a GS of 19.1% was observed, suggesting a neutralization of the NH2 group bound to the C2 of the biopolymer with the COOH group present in the drug. In the FTIR spectra were observed bands corresponding to the formation of a product different than QP and NAP, corroborating with the hypothesis of QN1 salt formation. In the UV-vis spectrum the three bands were observed for the absorption of the chromophore groups present in the salt. In the diffractograms, there was a peak in the region of ~22Ø in QN1, which was already observed as a shoulder in QP, but there was an increase, in addition, changes in the index of crystallinity of chitosan, suggested modifications in its semicrystalline structure after reaction with the NAP. The TG / DTG / DTA curves showed changes in the thermal behavior of QN1 in relation to QP, showing that the modification leads to changes in the thermal behavior and suggest the presence of NAP in the biopolymer matrix. The characterization confirmed the hypothesis of salt formation, QN1, because there were modifications in the intervals of mass loss, as well as, by the ratio between the third and second loss of mass, a stability gain can be verified. In order to improve the NAP-QP interaction capacity, the chitosan chains were crosslinked with epichlorohydrin. However, the reaction had a lower yield when compared to the uncrosslinked salt. It was verified by the different characterization techniques, mainly by 13C NMR that, instead of organizing and leaving the amino groups even more susceptible to reaction, the chitosan structure was organized in a way that there was less interaction with the drug. Therefore, for the salts QN1 and QPEPIN1 the study of the equilibrium of dissociation by HPLC, at different pHs 2,00 and 7,00, was carried out, simulating conditions of the intestine and stomach, in order to verify their profile of dissociation and behavior in these solutions. Thus, it was found that at pH 2.00 for QN1 dissociation occurs more rapidly when compared to pH 7.00. Already the crosslinked salt QPEPIN1, its dissociation at pH 2.00 is slower when compared to pH 7.00.

Several pseudopolymorphic forms of sodium naproxen were crystallized from methanol-water and ethanol-water solutions, including hydrated and alcohol-solvated forms. Results showed that the transitions of the pseudopolymorphic forms occur at temperatures that depend upon the solvent concentration. Results also revealed that water activity is a controlling factor for the transitions because regardless of which alcohol solvent mixture was used. The heats of solution for each pseudopolymorph were estimated by fitting the solubility data with the van't Hoff equation. The stability of hydrated forms over solvated forms at higher temperatures was proven for enantiotropic systems from a thermodynamic cycle. A 1:1 methanol-solvated form of sodium naproxen was discovered and fully characterized using a variety of analytical techniques. For further analysis, a single crystal was performed and revealed a two to three ratio solvate of sodium naproxen to methanol. The 1.5 solvate was shown to not be representative of the entire sample, but still provided insight into the bonding of the methanol solvent in sodium naproxen. Additionally, the ability of sodium naproxen to solvate with other alcohol solvents was explored, specifically looking at comparisons between pure ethanol, 1-propanol, 2-propanol, 1-butanol, and isobutanol solvents. It was shown that as the size of the alcohol increases and/or branching increases the ability to solvate decreases in relation to the molar amount of the alcohol present in the crystal structure. Additionally larger, branched alcohols required more energy to desolvate.

Thesis (M.S.)--Chemical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 2005. / Ronald W. Rousseau, Committee Chair ; William J. Koros, Committee Member ; Angus P. Wilkinson, Committee Member ; David J. am Ende, Committee Member. Includes bibliographical references.

Στην παρούσα διπλωματική εργασία μελετάται η καταβύθιση του αντιφλεγμονώδους φαρμάκου ναπροξένης, παρουσία του πολυμερούς PVP. Βρέθηκε ότι η παρουσία του PVP, επηρεάζει το μέγεθος και το σχήμα των κρυστάλλων της ναπροξένης. Μελετήθηκαν οι συνθήκες καταβύθισης όπως η θερμοκρασία, το pH του διαλύματος καθώς και ο συνδυασμός αυτών των δυο. Βρέθηκε ότι σε ορισμένες περιοχές pH και θερμοκρασίας επηρεάζεται το μέγεθος και το σχήμα των κρυστάλλων. Λήφθησαν φωτογραφίες από το ηλεκτρονικό μικροσκόπιο σάρωσης (SEM) για κάθε πείραμα που πραγματοποιήθηκε και έγινε στατιστική επεξεργασία των αποτελεσμάτων. / In the present work was studied the precipitation of naproxen in the presence of the polymer PVP. It was found that the presence of PVP, influents the size and the form of naproxen’s crystals. Were studied the conditions of precipitation such as the temperature, pH of the solution as well as the combination of both. It was found that in some areas of pH and temperature influence significantly the size and the form of crystals. It was taken images from scanning electron microscopy (SEM) for each experiment was carried out and it was made statistical analysis of the results.

Tendon plays an important role in regulating body locomotion and providing additional stability to the body. However, tendon is susceptible to injuries and the healing process could be devastating along with the several issues, namely adhesion formations, slow healing and failure at fixation sites, which have deferred the success of proper tendon healing via tendon tissue engineering. This dissertation thus aims to create a sustained dual-drug therapy to address these issues. For adhesion formation, naproxen sodium (NPS) has been shown to be able to avoid this symptom through inhibiting inflammation process.

The presented works aimed on the analysis of new impurities in APIs and medicinal products. Different subtypes of LC were coupled to suitable detection methods, i.e. UV and various MS techniques, depending on the chemical natures of the analytes and the analytical task. Unexpected impurities in medicinal products and APIs caused several scandals in the past, concomitant with fatalities or severe side effects in human and veterinary patients. The detection of nitrosamines in sartans led to the discovery of nitrosamines in various other drugs, of which the antibiotic rifampicin was analyzed in this work. An examination of the synthesis of rifampicin revealed a high potential for the formation of 4-methyl-1-nitrosopiperazine (MeNP). An LC-MS/HRMS method suitable for the quantification of MeNP was applied in the analysis of drugs collected from Brazil, Comoros, India, Nepal, and Tanzania, where a single dose of rifampicin is used in the post-exposure prophylaxis of leprosy. All batches were contaminated with MeNP, ranging from 0.7-5.1 ppm. However, application of rifampicin containing up to 5 ppm MeNP was recommended by the regulatory authorities for the post-exposure prophylaxis of leprosy. In the 1990s the aminoglycoside antibiotic gentamicin attracted attention after causing fatalities in the USA, but the causative agent was never identified unequivocally. The related substance sisomicin was recognized as a lead impurity by the Holzgrabe lab at the University of Würzburg: sisomicin was accompanied by a variety of other impurities and batches containing sisomicin had caused the fatalities. In 2016, anaphylactic reactions were reported after application of gentamicin. A contamination of the medicinal products with histamine, an impurity of the raw material fish peptone used upon the production, could be identified as the cause of the adverse effects. Batches of gentamicin sulfate, which had been stored at the University of Würzburg since the earlier investigations, were analyzed regarding their contamination with histamine to determine whether the biogenic amine was responsible for the 1990s fatalities as well. Furthermore, a correlation with the lead impurity sisomicin was checked. Histamine could be detected in all analyzed batches, but at a lower level than in the batches responsible for the anaphylactic reactions. Moreover, there is no correlation of histamine with the lead impurity sisomicin. Hence, the causative agent for the 1990s fatalities was not histamine and remains unknown. Another source of impurities is the reaction of APIs with excipients, e.g. the esterification of naproxen with PEG 600 in soft gel capsules. The influence of the formulation’s composition on this reaction was investigated by means of LC-UV. Therefore, the impurity naproxen-PEG-ester (NPEG) was synthesized and used for the development of a method suitable for the analysis of soft gel capsule formulations. Different formulations were stressed for 7 d at 60 °C and the relative amount of NPEG was determined. The formation of NPEG was influenced by the concentrations of water and lactic acid, the pH, and the drug load of the formulation, which can easily be explained by the chemistry behind esterification reactions. Keeping in mind the huge variety of sources of impurities, it might be impossible to predict all potential impurities of a drug substance/product. Targeted and untargeted approaches were combined in the impurity profiling of bisoprolol fumarate. Eight versions of an LC-HRMS method were developed to enable the detection of a maximum number of impurities: an acidic and a basic buffered LC was coupled to MS detection applying ESI and APCI, both in positive in negative mode. MS and MS/MS data were acquired simultaneously by information dependent acquisition. In the targeted approach, potential impurities were derived from a reaction matrix based on the synthesis route of the API, while the untargeted part was based on general unknown comparative screening to identify additional signals. 18 and 17 impurities were detected in the targeted and the untargeted approach, respectively. The molecular formulae were assessed based on the exact mass and the isotope pattern. Theoretical fragment spectra generated by in silico fragmentation were matched with experimental data to estimate the plausibility of proposed/elucidated structures. Moreover, the detected impurities were quantified with respect to an internal standard. / In den vorgestellten Projekten wurden neue Verunreinigungen in Arzneistoffen und Arzneimitteln untersucht. Verschiedene flüssigchromatographische Methoden wurden mit geeigneten Detektionsverfahren gekoppelt. UV-Detektion und verschiedene massenspektrometrische Techniken wurden in Abhängigkeit der chemischen Eigenschaften der Analyten und der analytischen Herausforderung ausgewählt. Eine Kontamination von Wirkstoffen bzw. humanen und veterinären Arzneimittel mit unerwarteten Verunreinigungen löste mehrere Skandale aus, die mit Todesfällen oder ernsthaften Nebenwirkungen einhergingen. Die Identifikation von Nitrosamin-Verunreinigungen in Sartanen führte zur Entdeckung von Nitrosaminen in verschiedenen anderen Wirkstoffen, z.B. im Antibiotikum Rifampicin, das in dieser Arbeit untersucht wurde. Eine Betrachtung der Rifampicin-Synthese offenbarte ein hohes Potenzial der Bildung von 4-Methyl-1-nitrosopiperazin (MeNP). Arzneimittel aus Brasilien, Indien, Nepal, Tansania und von den Komoren wurden mittels LC-MS/HRMS bezüglich ihres MeNP-Gehaltes analysiert. Alle untersuchten Chargen waren mit MeNP im Bereich von 0.7-5.1 ppm belastet. Rifampicin wird in den genannten Ländern unter anderem als Einzeldosis zur Postexpositionsprophylaxe von Lepra eingesetzt. Für diese Indikation empfehlen die Zulassungsbehörden die Verwendung von Rifampicin mit bis zu 5 ppm MeNP. Das Aminoglycosid-Antibiotikum Gentamicin löste in den 1990er Jahren Todesfälle in den USA aus. Die verantwortliche Verunreinigung wurde nie eindeutig aufgeklärt, doch die verwandte Substanz Sisomicin wurde durch den Arbeitskreis Holzgrabe an der Universität Würzburg als Leitverunreinigung identifiziert: Sisomicin ging mit einer Vielzahl von weiteren Verunreinigungen einher und Sisomicin-reiche Chargen hatten die Todesfälle ausgelöst. 2016 traten anaphylaktische Reaktionen nach Gentamicin-Anwendung auf. Histamin war als Verunreinigung von Fischpepton, einem Ausgangsmaterial der Produktion, in den Wirkstoff gelangt. Um zu überprüfen, ob Histamin auch für die Todesfälle in den 1990er Jahren verantwortlich war, wurden seit den früheren Untersuchungen gelagerte Gentamicin-Chargen bezüglich ihrer Verunreinigung mit Histamin untersucht. Außerdem wurde überprüft, ob es einen Zusammenhang mit dem Sisomicin-Gehalt gibt. In allen untersuchten Proben wurde Histamin gefunden, allerdings in einer geringeren Konzentration als in Chargen, die anaphylaktische Reaktionen ausgelöst hatten. Des Weiteren konnte kein Zusammenhang mit der Leitverunreinigung Sisomicin erkannt werden. Der Auslöser der Todesfälle in den 1990er Jahren war somit nicht Histamin, sondern bleibt weiterhin unbekannt. Ein weiterer Ursprung von Verunreinigungen ist die Reaktion des Wirkstoffs mit Hilfsstoff(en), z.B. die Veresterung von Naproxen mit PEG in Weichkapseln. Der Einfluss von Veränderungen der Formulierung auf diese Reaktion wurde mittels LC-UV untersucht. Die Verunreinigung Naproxen-PEG-Ester (NPEG) wurde synthetisiert und zur Entwicklung einer Methode zur Analyse von Weichkapsel-Formulierungen verwendet. Verschiedene Formulierungen wurden für 7 Tage bei 60 °C gestresst und deren relative Gehalte an NPEG bestimmt. Dabei war die Bildung von NPEG von der Wasser- und der Milchsäure-Konzentration, dem pH und dem Wirkstoffgehalt der Formulierung abhängig. Sämtliche Einflüsse konnten durch die Art der Reaktion (Veresterung) erklärt werden. Vor dem Hintergrund der vielfältigen Quellen für Verunreinigungen erscheint es unmöglich, alle potenziellen Verunreinigungen eines Wirkstoffs/Arzneimittels vorherzusagen. Gerichtete und ungerichtete Ansätze wurden daher für die Erstellung eines Verunreinigungsprofils von Bisoprololfumarat kombiniert. Um eine möglichst große Anzahl von möglichen Substanzen zu detektieren, wurden 8 LC-MS/HRMS-Methoden entwickelt: je eine saure und eine basische mobile Phase der LC wurde mit massenspektrometrischer Detektion mittels ESI und APCI, jeweils im positiv- und negativ-Modus kombiniert. MS- und MS/MS-Daten wurden simultan durch information dependent acquisition aufgenommen. Für den gerichteten Ansatz wurde eine Reaktionsmatrix auf Basis der Synthese des Wirkstoffs angefertigt und ausgehend davon potenzielle Verunreinigungen abgeleitet. Im ungerichteten Ansatz wurden mittels general unknown comparative screening zusätzliche Signale identifiziert. Der gerichtete Ansatz zeigte die Anwesenheit von 18, der ungerichtete von 17 Verunreinigungen. Summenformeln wurden anhand der exakten Masse und des Isotopenmusters der Signale bewertet. Die Plausibilität von Strukturformeln wurde mittels In-silico-Fragmentierung abgeschätzt, wobei experimentelle und theoretische Fragmentspektren in Einklang gebracht wurden. Außerdem wurden alle detektierten Verunreinigungen mittels eines externen Standards quantifiziert.