The dissolved air flotation (DAF) has been used in drinking water treatment for its excellent algae and natural organic matter (NOM) removal. DAF drinking water treatability test are often conducted in a DAF jar test apparatus. Although, DAF jar test studies showed that they were able to predict NOM removals at full-scale facilities well, they have not always been successful in predicting the turbidity removals. One possible reason of the DAF jar test inaccuracy results could be associated to the small jar diameter, which may create wall effects. Therefore, the first two objectives of this research are: a) to develop and test a new, larger diameter and larger volume batch bench-scale dissolved air flotation system (LB-DAF) to better simulate turbidity removals in drinking water applications; b) to confirm these results by comparing the LB-DAF and full-scale DAF turbidity removals for two other source waters. The raw water characteristics of the three plants were quite different and the testing was performed at different times of the year. The development/optimization of the LB-DAF evaluated the impact of different variables (i.e., mixing intensity, water depth/tank diameter ratio, impeller shape, saturator pressure and recycle ratio). The results showed that the LB-DAF predicted well the full-scale DAF turbidity removals at three water treatment plants, and these predictions were better than those of DAF jar tests. For the LB-DAF design and operational variables evaluated had a limited impact on the turbidity removals. The LB-DAF predicted well DAF full-scale turbidity removals regardless of water temperature. This is an indication of the robustness of the DAF system. Ballasted sedimentation (BS) is a compact coagulation/flocculation and sedimentation process combination that has become very popular because it is very compact and because it can handle large variations in raw water turbidity and NOM. The literature survey did not initially identify studies on the BS treatment of algal impacted waters, for which DAF is considered particularly suitable. Thus, the third main objective of this dissertation was to compare the efficiency of BS with that conventional gravity settling (CGS), and that of DAF for the treatment of an algal impacted water via jar tests. These comparisons were performed at the Belleville Water Treatment Plant using Bay of Quinte water, one of the most eutrophic zones of Lake Ontario. Unfortunately, a change of weather prior to the testing resulted in raw water samples with relatively low concentrations of algae and cyanobacteria. The testing showed that DAF and BS had very similar NOM, cyanobacteria/algae (chlorophyll a and phycocyanin) removals.; however, the BS required microsand addition, polymer addition and a slightly higher alum dose. Only for turbidity removal the DAF was somewhat superior. It is suggested that these comparison experiments be repeated with waters that are more impacted by algae and cyanobacteria.

Research in the use of ozone in water treatment conducted by many authors support the idea that the nature and characteristics of natural organic matter (NOM) present in raw water determines the efficiency of ozonation in water purification. An ozone contact chamber was designed and made to allow pre-ozonation of water to take place. The concentration of ozone in the chamber was determined using the Indigo method. For the duration of one year, water samples were collected from four different sampling sites and analyzed to determine their overall ecological status with regard to several variables such as pH, chlorophyll-a, SAC254, turbidity, DOC, algal species composition and sum of NOM. Two dams sites and two riverine sites were chosen, Hartbeespoort Dam (a hyper-eutrophic impoundment), Boskop Dam (a mesotrophic impoundment), Midvaal Water Company at Orkney and Sedibeng Water at Bothaville. The samples were treated in Jar Tests with FeCI3 and the same variables were measured. Preozonation followed by Jar Tests was performed on each sample at twoconcentrations of ozone and the variables were measured to examine the efficiency of ozonation. In general, the ph was high and stayed the same for all the samples and for all the treatments. DOC was variable and showed no relationship to any other variable or to the treatments. Hartbeespoort Dam was found to be a eutrophic impoundment characterized by high algal bloom of the cyanobacteria Microcystis sp., Turbidity, SAC254, and the sum of NOM were lower than for the riverine sites but higher than for Boskop Dam. The NOM constituted more intermediate molecular weight(1MW)and low molecular weight (LMW) fractions than the riverine sites. Ozone was effective in reducing chlorophyll-a, turbidity and SAC254 from Hartbeespoort Dam, but the presence of large numbers of algal cells interferes with its efficiency. Release of cell-bound organics after ozonation can lead to increases instead of decreases in these variables. Jar Test results demonstrate that ozonation improves water quality when compared to conventional treatment although the interference of algal cells can alter results. Boskop Dam is a mesotrophic impoundment characterised by low productivity, low SAC254, tow turbidity and low sum of NOM. However, it has a large portion of the LMW fraction of NOM present. This LMW fraction affects the treatment process as this fraction is not acted upon by ozone. Therefore it was found that ozonation did not improve the quality of the water when compared to conventional treatment. The two riverine sites, Midvaal and Sedibeng were similar to each other. Both sites had high algal productivity with high chlorophyll-a values indicative of algal blooms observed at certain times. These blooms consisted either of members of Bacillariophyceae or Chlorophyceae. High turbidity and SAC254 was observed during the rainy season and was related to the high percentage HMW and IMW fractions of NOM present. There was correlation between the turbidity and SAC254 of these sites leading to the assumption that the turbidity of the river is due to the presence of HMW humic fractions of NOM. Ozonation was effective in improving water quality with respect to turbidity, SAC254 and chlorophyll-a removal, both on its own and after conventional treatment when combined with a coagulant. However, the species of algae present affects ozonation as members of Bacillariophyceae are not affected by the actions of ozone because of the presence of a silica frustule whereas members of Chlorophyceae are easily removed by ozone. In general, ozone acts upon the HMW and LMW fractions of NOM causing them to breakdown into smaller fractions. Ozone has no effect on samples that have a high percentage of the LMW fraction of NOM. This LMW fraction is more readily removed by conventional treatment than by ozonation. The presence of large numbers of algal cells as well as the species of cells can negatively affect the treatment process with regard to ozone. / Thesis (M. Environmental Science (Water Science))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2007.

Research in the use of ozone in water treatment conducted by many authors support the idea that the nature and characteristics of natural organic matter (NOM) present in raw water determines the efficiency of ozonation in water purification. An ozone contact chamber was designed and made to allow pre-ozonation of water to take place. The concentration of ozone in the chamber was determined using the Indigo method. For the duration of one year, water samples were collected from four different sampling sites and analyzed to determine their overall ecological status with regard to several variables such as pH, chlorophyll-a, SAC254, turbidity, DOC, algal species composition and sum of NOM. Two dams sites and two riverine sites were chosen, Hartbeespoort Dam (a hyper-eutrophic impoundment), Boskop Dam (a mesotrophic impoundment), Midvaal Water Company at Orkney and Sedibeng Water at Bothaville. The samples were treated in Jar Tests with FeCI3 and the same variables were measured. Preozonation followed by Jar Tests was performed on each sample at twoconcentrations of ozone and the variables were measured to examine the efficiency of ozonation. In general, the ph was high and stayed the same for all the samples and for all the treatments. DOC was variable and showed no relationship to any other variable or to the treatments. Hartbeespoort Dam was found to be a eutrophic impoundment characterized by high algal bloom of the cyanobacteria Microcystis sp., Turbidity, SAC254, and the sum of NOM were lower than for the riverine sites but higher than for Boskop Dam. The NOM constituted more intermediate molecular weight(1MW)and low molecular weight (LMW) fractions than the riverine sites. Ozone was effective in reducing chlorophyll-a, turbidity and SAC254 from Hartbeespoort Dam, but the presence of large numbers of algal cells interferes with its efficiency. Release of cell-bound organics after ozonation can lead to increases instead of decreases in these variables. Jar Test results demonstrate that ozonation improves water quality when compared to conventional treatment although the interference of algal cells can alter results. Boskop Dam is a mesotrophic impoundment characterised by low productivity, low SAC254, tow turbidity and low sum of NOM. However, it has a large portion of the LMW fraction of NOM present. This LMW fraction affects the treatment process as this fraction is not acted upon by ozone. Therefore it was found that ozonation did not improve the quality of the water when compared to conventional treatment. The two riverine sites, Midvaal and Sedibeng were similar to each other. Both sites had high algal productivity with high chlorophyll-a values indicative of algal blooms observed at certain times. These blooms consisted either of members of Bacillariophyceae or Chlorophyceae. High turbidity and SAC254 was observed during the rainy season and was related to the high percentage HMW and IMW fractions of NOM present. There was correlation between the turbidity and SAC254 of these sites leading to the assumption that the turbidity of the river is due to the presence of HMW humic fractions of NOM. Ozonation was effective in improving water quality with respect to turbidity, SAC254 and chlorophyll-a removal, both on its own and after conventional treatment when combined with a coagulant. However, the species of algae present affects ozonation as members of Bacillariophyceae are not affected by the actions of ozone because of the presence of a silica frustule whereas members of Chlorophyceae are easily removed by ozone. In general, ozone acts upon the HMW and LMW fractions of NOM causing them to breakdown into smaller fractions. Ozone has no effect on samples that have a high percentage of the LMW fraction of NOM. This LMW fraction is more readily removed by conventional treatment than by ozonation. The presence of large numbers of algal cells as well as the species of cells can negatively affect the treatment process with regard to ozone. / Thesis (M. Environmental Science (Water Science))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2007.

yes / NOM deteriorates water quality by forming taste, clarification, colour, and odour problems. It also increases coagulant and chlorine consumption which can initiate disinfection by-products harmful to human health. The coagulation-flocculation (CF) technique is an established method commonly employed to remove NOM in water treatment. Plant-based coagulant products (PCPs) derived from plants like the Moringa oleifera (MO) Strychnos potatorum Linn and Opuntia ficus indica, have been studied and proposed as sustainable alternatives to chemical coagulant, like, aluminium sulphate due to their abundant availability, low cost, low sludge volume and disposal cost, and biodegradability. This review paper provides an overview of the most widely studied plant-based coagulants and discusses their NOM and turbidity removal. It investigates recent analytical tools applied in their characterisation and floc morphological studies. The paper also investigates the effects of operating parameters such as coagulant dose, temperature, and pH, on NOM and turbidity removal. It also reviews up-to-date PCPs biophysical properties and CF mechanism and examines the efficiency of their extraction methods in reducing NOM. Finally, it discusses and suggests ways to overcome commercialisation draw-back caused by nutrient addition.

The elimination of natural organic matter (NOM) is an important aim of water treatment in demineralisation plants of power stations. NOM is regarded as corrosion risk factor in the steam water cycle because of its potential to decompose into low-molecular-weight (LMW) acids and carbon dioxide. Further, the removal of NOM is also one of the main objectives in the drinking water production, since it can cause i) colour, taste and odour problems, ii) formation of carcinogen halogenated disinfection by-products (DBPs) after disinfection with chlorine and iii) bacterial growth in the water distribution system. In earlier studies, it was found that anion exchange is a successful method to remove NOM fractions. However, NOM fractions with low charge density (LMW neutrals and hydrophobic organic carbon (HOC)) and/or large molecular size (biopolymers and particulate organic carbon (POC)) could not be removed in some cases in satisfying quantities. The aim of the present work was to investigate the uptake performance of different anion exchange resins (AERs) in regard to problematic NOM fractions. The AERs differ especially in their functional groups (tertiary versus quaternary amines) and matrix material (polystyrene versus polyacrylic resins). The use of different AERs provides an option to identify possible interactions between adsorbate (NOM fractions) and adsorber (AERs) as well as the mechanism which determine the removal efficiency. The NOM fraction adsorption onto AERs was studied in equilibrium and fixed-bed experiments with three types of starch with different molecular size distributions (model substances for biopolymer fraction) as well as 2-naphthol (model substance for the LMW neutral fraction) at acidic pH (relevant for water in demineralisation plants of power stations) and neutral pH (covering most raw waters). Furthermore, the NOM fraction uptake from “real” acidic and neutral water samples, obtained from a demineralisation plant of a power station, was estimated for different AERs. Results were discussed in terms of size-exclusion, anion exchange and hydrophilic/hydrophobic repulsion. In case that size-exclusion influences the NOM uptake onto AERs, it was found that the smaller the size of the NOM molecules and the higher the water content of the AERs, the more effective the uptake is. Thus, for the removal of biopolymers and POC, polyacrylic resins with high water content could be a good choice. Contrary, polystyrene AERs are the most effective resins in the removal of NOM fractions, if no size-exclusion occurs. They seem to be able to uptake more hydrophilic NOM fractions by polar/ionic interactions between acids/acidic components and tertiary/quaternary amines as well as to remove more hydrophobic NOM fractions by π-π stacking and/or hydrophobic interactions on the polystyrene matrix. Further, it was found that the higher the total volume (anion exchange) capacity of an AER, the higher its NOM removal by polar/ionic interactions can be. At acidic pH, weak/medium base AERs have higher total volume (anion exchange) capacities than strong base AERs, whereas, at neutral pH, strong base AERs have the highest ones. In view of these results, the application of polyacrylic AERs with high water content can be recommended to remove NOM components with large molecular size in demineralisation and drinking water plants. If there is a higher amount of smaller NOM fractions, especially LMW neutrals, than polystyrene weak/medium base AERs should be favoured in demineralisation plants and polystyrene strong base AERs in drinking water treatment plants. From the engineering point of view, breakthrough curve (BTC) prediction models are important for the design of fixed-bed filter. Therefore, two different BTC model approaches were tested in the present study to describe the single-solute adsorption onto AERs: i) the homogenous surface diffusion model (HSDM) with linear driving force (LDF) approach for surface diffusion, known from activated carbon adsorption, and ii) the Glueckauf/Helfferich formulae as an extension of the height equivalent to a theoretical plate (HETP) model, initially used to describe ion exchange processes. It was found that the Glueckauf/Helfferich approach is not only a suitable tool for the fast calculation of BTCs for ionic components, but it can also successfully be applied, after considering the Freundlich model for the mass balance, for the rapid prediction of BTCs for single-solute organic molecules. For competitive BTC predictions, the ideal adsorbed solution theory (IAST) within the LDF model was applied. All calculated BTCs fit the experimental data in a good manner. Thus, the investigated BTC models can be applied for estimating the breakthrough bed volumes of different AERs to avoid leakage of NOM in the drinking or demineralised water caused by overloading. / Die Entfernung von natürlichen organischen Substanzen (NOM) ist ein wichtiges Ziel für die Herstellung von Reinstwasser im Kraftwerksbetrieb, da diese sich im Wasser/Dampf-Kreislauf zu niedermolekularen Säuren und Kohlenstoffdioxid zersetzen können und so ein potentielles Korrosionsrisiko darstellen. Außerdem ist die Elimination von natürlichen organischen Substanzen einer der Schwerpunkte in der Trinkwasseraufbereitung, da NOM im Trinkwasser folgende Konsequenzen verursachen können i) Farb-, Geschmacks- und Geruchsprobleme, ii) Bildung von kanzerogen halogenierten Desinfektionsnebenprodukten nach der Desinfektion mit Chlor und iii) Bakterienwachstum im Wasserverteilungssystem. In früheren Untersuchungen wurde festgestellt, dass Anionenaustauscherharze (AERs) die NOM-Fraktionen in der Regel erfolgreich aufnehmen können. Nur NOM-Fraktionen mit geringer Ladungsdichte (niedermolekulare Neutralstoffe und hydrophober organischer Kohlenstoff) und/oder großer Molekülgröße (Biopolymere und partikulärer organischer Kohlenstoff) können unter bestimmten Bedingungen nicht in zufriedenstellender Menge entfernt werden. Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, das Aufnahmeverhalten unterschiedlicher AERs hinsichtlich problematischer NOM-Fraktionen zu untersuchen. Die AERs unterscheiden sich vor allem in ihren funktionellen Gruppen (tertiäre versus quaternäre Amine) und ihrer Matrix (Polystyren- versus Polyacryl-Harze). Die Verwendung unterschiedlicher AERs erlaubt es, mögliche Wechselwirkungen zwischen Adsorbat (NOM-Fraktionen) und Adsorber (AERs) und die Mechanismen, die die NOM-Aufnahme entscheidend bestimmen, zu identifizieren. Die Entfernung von NOM-Fraktionen durch AERs wurde in Gleichgewichts- und Festbett-versuchen mittels dreier Stärketypen mit unterschiedlicher Molekülgrößenverteilung (Modellsubstanzen für die Biopolymere) und 2-Naphthol (Modellsubstanz für die Neutralstoffe) unter sauren pH-Bedingungen (relevant für die Herstellung von Reinstwasser im Kraftwerksbetrieb) und neutralen pH-Bedingungen (bedeutsam für die meisten Rohwässer) untersucht. Außerdem sollte das Adsorptionsverhalten von AERs bezüglich verschiedener NOM-Fraktionen unter Einsatz von „real“ neutralen und sauren Wasserproben aus einer Wasseraufbereitungsanlage eines Kraftwerksbetriebes eingeschätzt werden. In dieser Arbeit konnte gezeigt werden, dass falls Größenausschluss die NOM-Aufnahme von AERs beeinflusst, dann ist die Adsorption der NOM-Fraktionen umso größer, je kleiner die NOM-Moleküle sind und je höher der Wassergehalt der AERs ist. Daher kann für die Entfernung von größeren Biopolymeren, der Einsatz von AERs mit Polyacryl-Matrix und hohem Wassergehalt die beste Option sein. AERs mit Polystyren-Matrix besitzen die höchste Aufnahmekapazität für NOM-Fraktionen, falls kein Größenausschluss auftritt. Es scheint für sie möglich zu sein, sowohl hydrophile NOM-Fraktionen durch polare/ionische Wechselwirkungen zwischen NOM Säuren/sauren Komponenten und tertiären/quaternären Aminen aufzunehmen als auch hydrophobe NOM-Fraktionen durch π-π Anziehungen und/oder hydrophobe Interaktionen an die Polystyren-Matrix zu binden. Weiterhin konnte gezeigt werden, dass je höher die Gesamtvolumenkapazität eines AERs, desto größer ist die NOM-Entfernung auf Grund von polaren/ionischen Wechselwirkungen. Es gilt, dass schwach/mittel basische AERs im Vergleich zu stark basischen AERs höhere Gesamtvolumenkapazitäten unter sauren pH-Bedingungen besitzen und stark basische AERs die höchsten Gesamtvolumenkapazitäten unter neutralen pH-Bedingungen aufweisen. Auf Grund dieser Ergebnisse ist es möglich, die Verwendung von AERs mit Polyacryl-Matrix und hohem Wassergehalt für die Entfernung von NOM-Fraktionen mit großer Molekülgröße in Reinst- und Trinkwasseraufbereitungsanlagen zu empfehlen. Falls es einen höheren Anteil von kleineren NOM-Fraktionen, im Besonderen Neutralstoffen, gibt, sollte die Verwendung von schwach/mittel basischen AERs in Vollentsalzungsanlagen von Kraft-werksbetrieben und stark basischen AERs in Trinkwasseraufbereitungsanlagen bevorzugt werden. Vor allem im Hinblick auf technische Anwendungen ist es wichtig, Durchbruchskurven (BTC) vorausberechnen zu können. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden zwei Modellansätze für die Berechnung von BTCs für die Einkomponentenadsorption getestet: i) das homogene Oberflächendiffusionsmodell mit linearer Triebkraft (LDF), bekannt aus Untersuchungen zur Aufnahme von NOM an Aktivkohle, und ii) die Glueckauf/Helfferich-Formeln, primär verwendet für die Beschreibung von Ionenaustauschprozessen. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass das Glueckauf/Helfferich-Verfahren nicht nur ein geeignetes Instrument für die schnelle Berechnung von BTCs für ionische Komponenten ist, sondern dass dieses, nach Berücksichtigung des Freundlich-Ansatzes in der Massenbilanz, auch erfolgreich angewendet werden kann, um BTCs für Einkomponentenadsorption von Organika zu berechnen. Für die Vorausberechnung von BTCs für Mehrkomponentensysteme wurde die Theorie der idealen adsorbierten Lösung im LDF-Modell genutzt. Die berechneten BTCs stimmen in guter Qualität mit den experimentell ermittelten BTCs überein. Die Ergebnisse verdeutlichen, dass die untersuchten BTC-Modelle eingesetzt werden können, um Durchbruchspunkte für die jeweiligen AERs zu bestimmen und damit die Gefahr des Schlupfes von NOM ins Trink- bzw. Reinstwasser zu minimieren.

The elimination of natural organic matter (NOM) is an important aim of water treatment in demineralisation plants of power stations. NOM is regarded as corrosion risk factor in the steam water cycle because of its potential to decompose into low-molecular-weight (LMW) acids and carbon dioxide. Further, the removal of NOM is also one of the main objectives in the drinking water production, since it can cause i) colour, taste and odour problems, ii) formation of carcinogen halogenated disinfection by-products (DBPs) after disinfection with chlorine and iii) bacterial growth in the water distribution system. In earlier studies, it was found that anion exchange is a successful method to remove NOM fractions. However, NOM fractions with low charge density (LMW neutrals and hydrophobic organic carbon (HOC)) and/or large molecular size (biopolymers and particulate organic carbon (POC)) could not be removed in some cases in satisfying quantities. The aim of the present work was to investigate the uptake performance of different anion exchange resins (AERs) in regard to problematic NOM fractions. The AERs differ especially in their functional groups (tertiary versus quaternary amines) and matrix material (polystyrene versus polyacrylic resins). The use of different AERs provides an option to identify possible interactions between adsorbate (NOM fractions) and adsorber (AERs) as well as the mechanism which determine the removal efficiency. The NOM fraction adsorption onto AERs was studied in equilibrium and fixed-bed experiments with three types of starch with different molecular size distributions (model substances for biopolymer fraction) as well as 2-naphthol (model substance for the LMW neutral fraction) at acidic pH (relevant for water in demineralisation plants of power stations) and neutral pH (covering most raw waters). Furthermore, the NOM fraction uptake from “real” acidic and neutral water samples, obtained from a demineralisation plant of a power station, was estimated for different AERs. Results were discussed in terms of size-exclusion, anion exchange and hydrophilic/hydrophobic repulsion. In case that size-exclusion influences the NOM uptake onto AERs, it was found that the smaller the size of the NOM molecules and the higher the water content of the AERs, the more effective the uptake is. Thus, for the removal of biopolymers and POC, polyacrylic resins with high water content could be a good choice. Contrary, polystyrene AERs are the most effective resins in the removal of NOM fractions, if no size-exclusion occurs. They seem to be able to uptake more hydrophilic NOM fractions by polar/ionic interactions between acids/acidic components and tertiary/quaternary amines as well as to remove more hydrophobic NOM fractions by π-π stacking and/or hydrophobic interactions on the polystyrene matrix. Further, it was found that the higher the total volume (anion exchange) capacity of an AER, the higher its NOM removal by polar/ionic interactions can be. At acidic pH, weak/medium base AERs have higher total volume (anion exchange) capacities than strong base AERs, whereas, at neutral pH, strong base AERs have the highest ones. In view of these results, the application of polyacrylic AERs with high water content can be recommended to remove NOM components with large molecular size in demineralisation and drinking water plants. If there is a higher amount of smaller NOM fractions, especially LMW neutrals, than polystyrene weak/medium base AERs should be favoured in demineralisation plants and polystyrene strong base AERs in drinking water treatment plants. From the engineering point of view, breakthrough curve (BTC) prediction models are important for the design of fixed-bed filter. Therefore, two different BTC model approaches were tested in the present study to describe the single-solute adsorption onto AERs: i) the homogenous surface diffusion model (HSDM) with linear driving force (LDF) approach for surface diffusion, known from activated carbon adsorption, and ii) the Glueckauf/Helfferich formulae as an extension of the height equivalent to a theoretical plate (HETP) model, initially used to describe ion exchange processes. It was found that the Glueckauf/Helfferich approach is not only a suitable tool for the fast calculation of BTCs for ionic components, but it can also successfully be applied, after considering the Freundlich model for the mass balance, for the rapid prediction of BTCs for single-solute organic molecules. For competitive BTC predictions, the ideal adsorbed solution theory (IAST) within the LDF model was applied. All calculated BTCs fit the experimental data in a good manner. Thus, the investigated BTC models can be applied for estimating the breakthrough bed volumes of different AERs to avoid leakage of NOM in the drinking or demineralised water caused by overloading. / Die Entfernung von natürlichen organischen Substanzen (NOM) ist ein wichtiges Ziel für die Herstellung von Reinstwasser im Kraftwerksbetrieb, da diese sich im Wasser/Dampf-Kreislauf zu niedermolekularen Säuren und Kohlenstoffdioxid zersetzen können und so ein potentielles Korrosionsrisiko darstellen. Außerdem ist die Elimination von natürlichen organischen Substanzen einer der Schwerpunkte in der Trinkwasseraufbereitung, da NOM im Trinkwasser folgende Konsequenzen verursachen können i) Farb-, Geschmacks- und Geruchsprobleme, ii) Bildung von kanzerogen halogenierten Desinfektionsnebenprodukten nach der Desinfektion mit Chlor und iii) Bakterienwachstum im Wasserverteilungssystem. In früheren Untersuchungen wurde festgestellt, dass Anionenaustauscherharze (AERs) die NOM-Fraktionen in der Regel erfolgreich aufnehmen können. Nur NOM-Fraktionen mit geringer Ladungsdichte (niedermolekulare Neutralstoffe und hydrophober organischer Kohlenstoff) und/oder großer Molekülgröße (Biopolymere und partikulärer organischer Kohlenstoff) können unter bestimmten Bedingungen nicht in zufriedenstellender Menge entfernt werden. Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, das Aufnahmeverhalten unterschiedlicher AERs hinsichtlich problematischer NOM-Fraktionen zu untersuchen. Die AERs unterscheiden sich vor allem in ihren funktionellen Gruppen (tertiäre versus quaternäre Amine) und ihrer Matrix (Polystyren- versus Polyacryl-Harze). Die Verwendung unterschiedlicher AERs erlaubt es, mögliche Wechselwirkungen zwischen Adsorbat (NOM-Fraktionen) und Adsorber (AERs) und die Mechanismen, die die NOM-Aufnahme entscheidend bestimmen, zu identifizieren. Die Entfernung von NOM-Fraktionen durch AERs wurde in Gleichgewichts- und Festbett-versuchen mittels dreier Stärketypen mit unterschiedlicher Molekülgrößenverteilung (Modellsubstanzen für die Biopolymere) und 2-Naphthol (Modellsubstanz für die Neutralstoffe) unter sauren pH-Bedingungen (relevant für die Herstellung von Reinstwasser im Kraftwerksbetrieb) und neutralen pH-Bedingungen (bedeutsam für die meisten Rohwässer) untersucht. Außerdem sollte das Adsorptionsverhalten von AERs bezüglich verschiedener NOM-Fraktionen unter Einsatz von „real“ neutralen und sauren Wasserproben aus einer Wasseraufbereitungsanlage eines Kraftwerksbetriebes eingeschätzt werden. In dieser Arbeit konnte gezeigt werden, dass falls Größenausschluss die NOM-Aufnahme von AERs beeinflusst, dann ist die Adsorption der NOM-Fraktionen umso größer, je kleiner die NOM-Moleküle sind und je höher der Wassergehalt der AERs ist. Daher kann für die Entfernung von größeren Biopolymeren, der Einsatz von AERs mit Polyacryl-Matrix und hohem Wassergehalt die beste Option sein. AERs mit Polystyren-Matrix besitzen die höchste Aufnahmekapazität für NOM-Fraktionen, falls kein Größenausschluss auftritt. Es scheint für sie möglich zu sein, sowohl hydrophile NOM-Fraktionen durch polare/ionische Wechselwirkungen zwischen NOM Säuren/sauren Komponenten und tertiären/quaternären Aminen aufzunehmen als auch hydrophobe NOM-Fraktionen durch π-π Anziehungen und/oder hydrophobe Interaktionen an die Polystyren-Matrix zu binden. Weiterhin konnte gezeigt werden, dass je höher die Gesamtvolumenkapazität eines AERs, desto größer ist die NOM-Entfernung auf Grund von polaren/ionischen Wechselwirkungen. Es gilt, dass schwach/mittel basische AERs im Vergleich zu stark basischen AERs höhere Gesamtvolumenkapazitäten unter sauren pH-Bedingungen besitzen und stark basische AERs die höchsten Gesamtvolumenkapazitäten unter neutralen pH-Bedingungen aufweisen. Auf Grund dieser Ergebnisse ist es möglich, die Verwendung von AERs mit Polyacryl-Matrix und hohem Wassergehalt für die Entfernung von NOM-Fraktionen mit großer Molekülgröße in Reinst- und Trinkwasseraufbereitungsanlagen zu empfehlen. Falls es einen höheren Anteil von kleineren NOM-Fraktionen, im Besonderen Neutralstoffen, gibt, sollte die Verwendung von schwach/mittel basischen AERs in Vollentsalzungsanlagen von Kraft-werksbetrieben und stark basischen AERs in Trinkwasseraufbereitungsanlagen bevorzugt werden. Vor allem im Hinblick auf technische Anwendungen ist es wichtig, Durchbruchskurven (BTC) vorausberechnen zu können. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden zwei Modellansätze für die Berechnung von BTCs für die Einkomponentenadsorption getestet: i) das homogene Oberflächendiffusionsmodell mit linearer Triebkraft (LDF), bekannt aus Untersuchungen zur Aufnahme von NOM an Aktivkohle, und ii) die Glueckauf/Helfferich-Formeln, primär verwendet für die Beschreibung von Ionenaustauschprozessen. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass das Glueckauf/Helfferich-Verfahren nicht nur ein geeignetes Instrument für die schnelle Berechnung von BTCs für ionische Komponenten ist, sondern dass dieses, nach Berücksichtigung des Freundlich-Ansatzes in der Massenbilanz, auch erfolgreich angewendet werden kann, um BTCs für Einkomponentenadsorption von Organika zu berechnen. Für die Vorausberechnung von BTCs für Mehrkomponentensysteme wurde die Theorie der idealen adsorbierten Lösung im LDF-Modell genutzt. Die berechneten BTCs stimmen in guter Qualität mit den experimentell ermittelten BTCs überein. Die Ergebnisse verdeutlichen, dass die untersuchten BTC-Modelle eingesetzt werden können, um Durchbruchspunkte für die jeweiligen AERs zu bestimmen und damit die Gefahr des Schlupfes von NOM ins Trink- bzw. Reinstwasser zu minimieren.

The diploma thesis deals with characterizing properties of non-proteinaceous cellular organic matter (COM) of green alga Chlorella vulgaris in connection with its coagulation using aluminium sulphate and polyaluminiumchloride. As a part of this work, interaction mechanisms were also studied. It has been found out that non-proteinaceous COM of Chlorella vulgaris is made up by saccharides (25 % DOCNP, 21 % of dry biomass of non- protein matter) and other unspecified non-protein substances. It has been found out by fractionation of molecular weights that non-protein COM is formed primarily by substances with MW < 3 kDa and substances with MW > 100 kDa. Coagulation by aluminium sulphate taken place in interval pH 5 - 8,5 and coagulation by polyaluminiumchlorid taken place in interval pH 7 - 10 depending on coagulation agent dose. The maximum DOC removals were 17 - 22 % depending on selected coagulation agent, on its dose and pH. Polyaluminiumchloride showed higher DOC removal rates than aluminium sulphate. The highest effectiveness of coagulation was in the area of neutral pH for both agents. In all the coagulation tests the values of residual concentrations of aluminium were higher than the hygienic limit for drinking water (0.2 mg.L-1 ). Primarily high-molecular matter was removed by coagulation and...

Societies are facing great challenges with obtaining a good quality and quantity of drinking water in the context of climate change. Increases in natural organic matter (NOM) and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) have been observed in lakes and drinking water the past years, which is of great concern for water treatment plants in Sweden. It is therefore vital to increase the knowledge regarding the distribution of these substances in the environment. The main objective of this project was therefore to further develop a hydrodynamic model for lake Ekoln by including transportation and degradation of NOM. This was to be done by calibrating the model in terms of total organic carbon (TOC) and Water colour (Colour). A second objective was to investigate the requirements to successfully model PFAS in Ekoln for future studies. The study was done using the model MIKE 3 FM, developed by the Danish Hydraulic Institute (DHI) The two variables TOC and Colour, were calibrated separately for the period of February 2017 to September 2018. For TOC the within-lake processes were decay and sedimentation. These were described using a reference decay constant for 20 °C (k0), that was scaled using the Arrhenius temperature coefficient (θ), and sedimentation was represented by a settling velocity (vsm). For Colour the included process was photooxidation. This process was described using a maximum photooxidation rate (kphoto) that was scaled using the Monod relation including parameters for minimum photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) necessary for photooxidation to occur (Imin) and a PAR half saturation constant (I1/2). The calibration of TOC resulted in the following best fit parameters for k0  of 0.001 d-1, θ of 1.07 and vsm of 0.001 md-1. The calibration of Colour resulted in the following best fit parameters for kphoto of 0.0125 d-1, Imin of 0 µmol photons m-2s-1 and I1/2 of 4 µmol photons m-2s-1. Overall it can be concluded that the chosen processes managed to capture the seasonal variations of TOC and Colour, and the calibrated parameter values are in line with similar studies. The assumption of not including autochthonous input proved to be the biggest source of error in the calibration of TOC but proved to have a minor influence on the calibration of Colour. To achieve a more realistic representation of photooxidation in the vertical profile, for the simulation of Colour, more processes should be considered to be added in the model in future studies. The results presented in this study contributes with increased knowledge of carbon budgets in lakes and can be used to predict water quality hazards connected to climate change and extreme events. The limited access to PFAS data for Ekoln, constrained the study of PFAS and only two sources could therefore be studied: The sewage treatment plant Kungsängsverket and precipitation. The results showed that the simulated concentrations of PFAS in Ekoln only accounted for 40 % of the observed concentrations. It could further be concluded that the contribution from precipitation is negligible. For future studies it is judged to be vital to include Fyrisån as a PFAS source, and to look into processes that influence PFAS distribution, such as sedimentation and adsorption to organic matter. / Samhällen står idag inför stora utmaningar vad gäller att tillhandahålla god kvalitet och kvantitet av dricksvatten under rådande klimatförändringar. De senaste åren har det observerats ökande halter av naturligt organiskt material (NOM) och per- och polyfluorerade alkylsubstanser (PFAS) i sjöar och dricksvatten, vilket är bekymmersamt för Sveriges vattenreningsverk. Det är därför av största vikt att öka kunskapen om dessa ämnens distribution i miljön. Huvudsyftet med denna studie var därför att vidareutveckla en hydrodynamisk modell för sjön Ekoln så att den även inkluderar transporten och nedbrytningen av NOM. Detta utfördes genom att kalibrera modellen för totalt organisk kol (TOC) och Vattenfärg (Färg). Ett andra syfte var att undersöka vilka förutsättningar som krävs för att kunna modellera PFAS på ett korrekt sätt i Ekoln. Studien utfördes i modellverktyget MIKE 3 FM, utvecklat av DHI.  De två variablerna TOC och Färg kalibrerades separat för perioden februari 2017 – september 2018. Processerna som valdes att påverka TOC var nedbrytning och sedimentation. Dessa processer beskrevs med hjälp av en referens-nedbrytningskonstant för 20 °C (k0), vilken anpassades med hjälp av Arrhenius temperaturkoefficient (θ) och sedimentation beskrevs med hjälp av en sedimentationshastighet (vsm). Färg påverkades endast av processen fotooxidation vilken beskrevs med en maximal hastighet för fotooxidation  (kphoto) som anpassades med hjälp av Monods relation. Anpassningen skedde med hjälp av parametern för minimal fotosyntetiskt aktivt ljus (PAR) för att fotooxidation ska ske (Imin) samt en PAR halv mättnads konstant (I1/2) .  Kalibreringen resulterade i värden för k0 av 0.001 d-1, θ av 1.07 och vsm av 0.001 md-1. Kalibreringen för Färg resulterade i värden för kphoto av 0.0125 d-1, Imin av 0 µmol fotoner m-2s-1 och I1/2 av 4 µmol fotoner m-2s-1. Det kan konstateras att de valda processerna lyckas med att beskriva säsongsvariationerna av både TOC och Färg och att de kalibrerade parametervärdena stämmer överens med litteraturen. Antagandet om att inte inkludera autoktont tillförsel av organiskt material (NOM från ytvatten), visade sig vara den största felkällan i simulering av TOC, men visade sig ha en mycket liten påverkan på simuleringen av Färg. För en mer realistisk bild av fotooxidations spridning i djupled, för simuleringen av Färg, bör fler processer övervägas att inkluderas i modellen för framtida studier.  Studien av PFAS var begränsad av tillgången till data, vilket medförde att endast två källor av PFAS till Ekoln analyserades: reningsverket Kungsängsverket och nederbörd. Resultaten visade att den simulerade koncentrationen av PFAS endast motsvarade 40 % av den observerade. Vidare kunde det konstateras att tillförsel av PFAS från regn kan antas vara försumbar. För framtida studier av PFAS i Ekoln bedöms det vara avgörande att inkludera Fyrisån som en källa, samt att vidare undersöka processer som påverkar transporten av PFAS så som sedimentation och adsorption till organiskt material.

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