The Commonwealth of Virginia has implemented the Standards of Learning which are designed to ensure that students meet certain benchmarks at various points in their elementary and secondary educational careers. President George W. Busch signed into law the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) which is intended to ensure that all children succeed academically. Each of these mandates incorporates levels of accountability to which school administrators, especially the superintendent, must adhere. Recent studies indicate that the expectations for today's superintendent demand greater accountability and that the current systems, known as the standards movement, undermine the authority of the superintendency (Guthrie, 2003). These factors, according to Guthrie (2003), lead to a shortage in the profession (Guthrie, 2003). Research indicates that the average superintendent's tenure is six to seven years (Natkin, et al., 2002), that there is a national shortage of superintendent applicants (Cooper, et al., 2000), and that the quality of the applicant pool is diminishing (Glass, 2001). This study examines two independent variables, the Standards of Learning (SOL) and the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB), to determine the effect these variables have on the tenure of school superintendents in Virginia. The purpose of this study was to determine if there is a relationship between the increased accountability with state and federal mandates, in particular Standards of Learning (SOLs), No Child Left Behind (NCLB), and other influences on superintendent tenure in the Commonwealth of Virginia. A survey instrument was utilized to answer the following questions: (1) What is the relationship, if any, between the Standards of Learning and the superintendent tenure? (2) What is the relationship, if any, between the No Child Left Behind Act and the tenure of the superintendent? (3) What is the relationship, if any, of other influences on the superintendent tenure? The data received from superintendents in Virginia was entered into SPSS and disaggregated by age, gender, race, years of experience as superintendent, number of years as superintendent in current district, enrollment, Adequate Yearly Progress status, and number of schools in respondent's district. The findings of this study revealed that of the superintendents who responded, 95% believe that the SOLs have had a positive impact on education in Virginia. Superintendents indicated that the SOLs are not a factor in their tenure as evidenced by 94% of the superintendents who revealed that they have not considered leaving the profession as a result of the SOLs. This study also revealed that superintendents in Virginia, 71% responding to the survey, believe that NCLB has not had a positive impact on education in Virginia. However, NCLB does not factor into superintendents' decisions to leave the profession or retire. In addition, other influences regarding superintendent tenure were revealed. This study revealed that local politics, evening responsibilities, pressure by the community to meet accreditation standards are not factors that affect superintendent tenure. However, superintendents indicated that interactions with the School Board could have an adverse affect on their tenure in the district as evidenced by 96% of the respondents. / Ed. D.

Doctor of Philosophy / Curriculum and Instruction Programs / Lawrence C. Scharmann / This research examines the impact of the “No Child Left Behind” (NCLB) Act on elementary science education in the states of Colorado, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, and Oklahoma. Elementary teachers (n=928 total for all states) responded to an online survey, which included both closed-ended and open-ended questions pertaining to the time spent on science instruction and any changes made in science instruction since the implementation of NCLB. More than half of these teachers indicated they have cut time from science instruction since NCLB became law. Follow-up questions with regard to why changes were made in science instruction were also included in the survey. The need to increase time for math and reading instruction was a belief expressed by many of the respondents with other respondents stating a member of their administration mandated changes. This research also examines results from the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) for each of these states to determine if the changes made in response to NCLB helped meet the goal of closing the achievement gap between the disaggregated subgroups of gender, race, and socioeconomic status (SES). The data from the NAEP shows only a few significant changes occurred; however, some included a significant increase in the achievement gap.

Since the development and implementation of the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) of 2002, educators have received pressure from local, state, and federal policyholders for students to achieve academically and for schools to make adequate yearly progress to avoid state and federal sanctions. The purpose of this study was to examine educators' perceptions of the effects of high-stakes testing and the accountability policies in high poverty and low poverty schools. The theoretical frameworks were conservation of resources theory, jobs demands-resources model, and job autonomy and control theory. Research questions focused on understanding educators' perception of high-stakes testing regarding curricula, instructional practices, available instructional support, and job satisfaction. A cross-sectional, quasi-experimental design was used to obtain both quantitative and qualitative with a sample of 200 teachers and 6 principals, respectively. To investigate the differences in responses between teachers, a two-way factorial analysis of variance was used. Quantitative findings indicated that teachers in lower poverty schools had a lower perception when it came to the curricula, instructional method, and instructional support. Teachers in lower poverty schools expressed higher job satisfaction. Qualitative findings showed that principals felt that the Georgia Professional Standards teaches how to pass the test and does not give students the opportunity to apply what is learned. These findings illuminate the role of poverty in high-stakes testing and accountability policies; they also assist policymakers and stakeholders in identifying supports needed to ensure that all children succeed.

The purpose of the study was to identify teacher perception regarding the effects of NCLB on the development of knowledge among elementary school students in two school districts in a Midwestern state. I applied a case-study design to address the research questions, with data obtained from interviews with eight experienced school teachers, who reported on the state of the cognitive development of their students. Epistemology, specifically social and virtue epistemology, served as the theoretical framework for the analysis of the data, thus filling a gap in the literature for an epistemological study of the effects of NCLB. The hypothesis for the study was that NCLB is detrimental to the development of knowledge among elementary students by placing too much emphasis on mandated standardized testing, and by limiting the curriculum to the subjects that are under the requirements for Adequate Yearly Progress (YAP). The analysis of teacher input indicates that NCLB hinders the development of knowledge among elementary school students. This is because educators are constrained by excessive testing requirements, and are thus not able to foster in their students the intellectual virtues necessary for the development of the lifelong learner, the student who is capable of and understands that learning continuous throughout one’s life. Future research is needed to link the scholarship on intellectual virtues to the education of school children, making of the virtues a central and intrinsic part of the educational effort.

ABSTRACT KINDERGARTEN TEACHERS’ KNOWLEDGE AND PERCEPTIONS OF EARLY LEARNING-RELATED SKILLS AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP TO ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT by Kathryn Powell Historically, the kindergarten curriculum emphasized social-emotional development including interpersonal and learning-related skills (Logue, 2007). Researchers have confirmed that teachers valued social-emotional development, particularly learning-related skills, as foundational skills to school readiness and future academic achievement (e.g., Heaviside & Farris, 1993). Since the implementation of No Child Left Behind (NCLB, 2002), the focus of kindergarten has changed to incorporate additional academic standards and goals (Fantuzzo et al., 2007). This mixed method study (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 1998) utilized quantitative (i.e., surveys) and qualitative (i.e., semi-structured interviews) methods to investigate and compare the perceptions of pre-NCLB to post-NCLB kindergarten teachers regarding the significance of learning-related skills to academic achievement. A sample (N=97) of certified kindergarten teachers currently working in and around the metro Atlanta area with one or more years of kindergarten experience were administered surveys. Thirty participants from the larger sample were included in the qualitative phase of the study. It was hypothesized that teachers would rate learning-related skills as important precursors to academic achievement; however, pre-NCLB teachers would rate learning-related skills as more important than their peers. The results suggested that there was no difference in pre- and post-NCLB teachers’ perceptions of the importance of learning-related skills to students’ school readiness. There also, was not a significant difference in how pre- and post-NCLB kindergarten teachers prioritized school readiness skills (learning-related, interpersonal, academic). However, when asked to rank these skills in terms of importance there was a significant difference between the two groups. Pre-NCLB teachers indicated interpersonal skills as more important to school readiness than post-NCLB teachers and post-NCLB teachers indicated academic skills as more important than pre-NCLB teachers. No significant difference was found in teachers’ beliefs about achievement or efficacy. Implications for curriculum, policy, research, and practice will be discussed.

Bilingual education in the United States has been at the forefront of educational politics and debates since its inception. Arguments over language of instruction and program goals overshadow the deeper philosophical, political and societal issues rooted at the heart of bilingual education. This purpose of this study was to present a critical view of the issues impacting a small Central Texas school district?s early childhood bilingual program. Over the course of a year, I conducted a focus group interview followed by individual interviews with two preschool and two kindergarten Spanish bilingual teachers. I collected field notes and observational data on site for two years. Based in grounded theory, the data dictated the focus of the study. The open coding process used to analyze the focus group interview data uncovered the foundational themes for this study. The individual interviews were analyzed using open coding, confirming and elaborating on the themes. Field notes and observational data were used to triangulate the data. The themes were: philosophical and theoretical foundations, politics and policies, and social and cultural issues. Through the lens of the data, I examined the impact of No Child Left Behind, Reading First, and the corresponding Texas regulations. The participants found the testing requirements to be distracting from their teaching. They believed the requirements, particularly for assessment, to be inappropriate and of limited use in their classrooms. From a sociocultural perspective, I discovered discrimination and segregation, but the teacher participants never opened a dialogue about these practices with each other or their administrator. The bilingual classes were isolated, given inferior and inappropriate materials. The school's culture was one of assimilation, not diversity. Finally, I examined the underlying issues that impacted this bilingual education program and the implications for further research. There is a need to conduct further research into bilingual teacher education, including alternative certification and continuing education, the hidden curriculum and bilingual education and empowerment of bilingual teachers through dialogue. Bilingual education holds the promise of closing the gaps in education, but further research must include the critical areas of influence including philosophy, politics and sociocultural issues, not just program goals and language acquisition.

In response to a growing teacher shortage, increasing numbers of secondary teachers are prepared through streamlined certification programs. For this reason, assessing candidates' content area knowledge gained from institutions of higher education across the United States is an important program admission factor as candidates must demonstrate content area knowledge by passing a Texas content area certification test (TExES). This study examines content knowledge for candidates enrolled in an online post­-baccalaureate program from September 1, 2002 through April 30, 2005. Academic transcript analysis and grades 8-­12 subject tests of the TExES were used as a proxy for subject matter knowledge for a sample of individuals seeking initial teacher certification in a post­-baccalaureate teacher certification at the University of North Texas. Descriptive data,linear regression, and logistic regression analyses were used to draw conclusions about the content area knowledge of the individuals in the sample. Scores on the TExES were used to determine the relationships between the content area knowledge of initial certification students and the number of content area courses completed, the grade point averages, and time elapsed between the completion of the last content area course and the student's initial attempt on the TExES. Results differed by the content area of the candidates. Analysis of variance results indicate significant differences between the five test groups with regard to number of courses taken F(4,139) = 9.334, p < .001 grade point average F(4,139) = 5.733, p < .001 and time between the last course taken F(4,139) = 6.135, p < .001. The three­-predictor model was statistically significant F(3,32) = 3.753, p = .02 for the History test group. The variable, upper-­level grade point average accounted for approximately 12% variance among scores within the History test group, and the variable months of time elapsed between last content area course work and the initial state content examination accounted for approximately 13% of variance among scores.

The 2007-2008 school year marked the first year Florida's Title I schools that did not made Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) for five consecutive years entered into restructuring as mandated by the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. My study examines the perceptions of teachers entering into their first year of school restructuring due to failure to achieve AYP. Four research questions guided my inquiry: What are the perceptions of teachers regarding their school's failure to make Adequate Yearly Progress? What are the understandings of teachers regarding the restructuring process? What are the perceptions of teachers regarding the restructuring process? In what ways have their perceptions of the restructuring process changed their reading instruction? The purpose of this study is to gain insight into teachers' perceptions of AYP and its restructuring consequences. I applied grounded theory, ethnography as a research tool, and critical discourse analysis as a research tool to this organizational case study. Twelve teachers from Star Elementary School, a rural Title I elementary school, served as participants. I collected data using field notes, semi-structured interviews, and surveys. I collected data for a total of 148.25 hours over a period of 31 days at Star Elementary School. My analysis of the data revealed while teachers placed blame on students, parents, and policy makers, they also looked inwardly to their own shortfalls and contributions to AYP failure. Teachers understood the specific consequences related to AYP failure and demonstrated an understanding of data analysis of their student state test scores. Teachers did not demonstrate an understanding that NCLB (2001) allows for teachers to be part of the decision-making process regarding curriculum and instruction at their school. Teachers also reported decreased authority and autonomy due to Star's failure to make AYP. My research supports the Restructuring Inverse Impact Theory: consequences of NCLB's (2001) reform mandates intended to enhance student achievement may negatively impact that achievement due to the undermining of teacher efficacy.

The reauthorized No Child Left Behind requirement for annual state-mandated student examinations led some teachers to believe that they must teach solely for test preparation. This case study explored teachers' perceptions of preparing students for the state-mandated tests at an economically disadvantaged high school in the southeastern United States. Ten teachers were interviewed to understand their perceptions of 'teaching to the test,' feelings of pressure and stress, motivation to teach, and recommendations for integration of creative teaching strategies. The researcher collected demographic data, such as gender, grades taught, and subjects taught, and manually calculated frequencies and percentages. With an electronic software program for qualitative data management, the researcher analyzed the data manually by iterative review of the interview transcripts for codes and themes. Teachers' perceptions of standardized test preparation were both positive and negative. Preparation fostered discipline and content mastery but inhibited teacher creativity and stressed students. Teachers experienced pressure and stress with unhealthy physical reactions, lack of competence, and responsibility to students. Teachers' motivations were both positive and negative. Some experienced increased self-efficacy, and other experienced decreased motivation; commitment to students; and inadequate institutional support. Teachers recommended incorporation of creative teaching strategies and professional development (PD) programs. Findings led to a PD for addressing the problems and creative strategies (e.g., reciprocal teaching, graphic organizers). Findings may help teachers reduce negative feelings toward standardized test preparation and use innovative strategies for students' more effective learning.

Education policy and funding is, and has historically been, the purview of the individual states. Each state developed its own education system and did so within the specific historical contexts unique to that state. Although federal involvement in education policy has grown drastically since the enactment of the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2002, education policies and practices are still largely controlled by the individual states. In addition, for most states the single largest expenditure of state and local government resources is education. This dissertation addresses the question of whether differences in educational practices and policy outcomes are attributed to state political culture. A path analysis model was used to analyze causal relationships between state education policy outcomes and political culture, as well as other variables identified by the literature as strongly tied to student achievement or state policy outcomes such as: societal factors, economic factors, political factors, and education practices. A major goal of this research was to identify factors that may be influencing the success of national education policies, including the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1964 (ESEA) and its subsequent reauthorizations such as the NCLB Act of 2002. These policies address long-standing education policy issues—such as the achievement gap between minority and impoverished students and their statistically higher achieving peers. The results indicate that political culture does influence differences in policy outcomes, although indirectly through other variables such as societal and economic factors. Very often factors such as societal and economic factors are treated only as causes or predictors of student achievement and other policy outcomes. This analysis shows these causes to themselves be functions of political culture, providing additional insight into factors influencing state policy outcomes in order to aid public administrators in the development and implementation of more successful policies.