Wir haben im Hippocampus von transgenen Mäusen, die grün fluoreszierendes Protein (GFP) unter der Kontrolle eines Promotors für Nestin exprimieren, mutmaßliche Neuronale Vorläuferzellen identifiziert. Wir haben bereits in früheren Arbeiten gezeigt, dass Nestin-GFP exprimierende Vorläuferzellen in der subgranularen Zone des adulten Gyrus Dentatus sich in zwei Subpopulationen entsprechend ihrer morphologischen Eigenschaften einteilen lassen. Eine kleine, morphologisch unterscheidbare Population von Vorläuferzellen mit neuronalen Eigenschaften erhielt GABAergen, aber keinen glutamatergen Input, dies widerspiegelt die Situation während der Entwicklung des Gehirns. Außerdem haben wir ecto-nucleotidase NTPDase2 und functionelle P2X Rezeptoren in hippocampalen Vorläuferzellen identifiziert. Wir haben auch das Verhalten Nestin exprimierender Zellen bis zu 8 Wochen nach 30 minütiger Occlusion der mittleren cerebralen Arterie (MCAo)/reperfusion und im murinen experimentellen Glioblastom Modell untersucht. Neben den bereits publizierten Ergebnissen, die ich auch in meiner Doktorarbeit vorgestellt habe, habe ich die elektrophysiologischen Eigenschaften der Nestin-GFP-exprimierenden Zellen in der Amygdala und im CA 1 des Hippocampus untersucht. / Using transgenic mice that express green fluorescent protein (GFP) under control of the nestin promoter, the putative precursor cells were identified. We have previously shown that nestin-GFP expressing precursor cells in the adult subgranular zone of hippocampal dentate gyrus could be divided into two distinct subpopulations based on morphological criteria. A small, morphological distinct population of precursor cells with neuronal properties received GABAergic, but not glutamatergic input similar as in brain development. We identified ecto-nucleotidase NTPDase2 and functional P2X receptors at hippocampal progenitor cells. We also studied the fate of nestin-GFP-expressing cells up to 8 weeks after 30 mins occlusion of the middle cerebral artery (MCAo)/reperfusion and in murine experimental glioblastoma model. Except for the published results which was included in this PhD dissertation, I also studied the electrophysiology properties of nestin-GFP-expression cells in amygdala and in Ca1 of hippocampus.

This thesis describes the developmental expression and anatomical distribution of Copine-6, a neuron specific member of the Copine family of calcium-dependent phospholipid-binding proteins, in rodent brain. A polyclonal antibody targeting the full Copine-6 sequence has been characterised prior to its employment for the immunohistochemical analysis of rodent embryonic and adult brain tissue. Several different Copine-6 labelled neuron populations in the neocortex, hippocampus and olfactory bulbs were discovered, and one of these with an unusual ‘spiny’ morphology in the adult rodent corpus callosum, bordering the neurogenic subventricular zone and rostral migratory stream, was studied in detail. A full molecular characterisation of these Copine-6 ‘spiny’ neurons showed that these cells are mature, GABAergic, axonless interneurons with putative synaptic communication, unusual for their location in the white matter close to the region of adult neurogenesis. A full bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) birth-dating analysis was performed, which indicated an early embryonic birthdate for the Copine-6 spiny cells. This timeframe is typical of cortical GABAergic interneurons suggesting that their unusual positioning is programmed from embryogenesis. Furthermore, electron microscopic analysis of these Copine-6 interneurons in Chapter 5 confirms that indeed these cells contain vesicles and are synaptically integrated as postsynaptic recipients. The presence of vesicles in the architecturally dendritic processes is suggestive of dendro-dendritic signalling by these cells. Observations from electron microscopic nanoparticle labelling also showed that the Copine-6 protein is restricted to the plasma membrane, smooth endoplasmic reticulum, and multi-vesicular bodies. These embryonically generated Copine-6 labelled axonless interneurons are a novel neuron population in the corpus callosum, and the presence of vesicles in the dendritic processes of these cells suggests that they might have a novel communication mechanism.

No description available.

Regular aerobic exercise has a wide range of positive effects on health and cognition. Exercise has been demonstrated to provide a particularly powerful and replicable method of triggering a wide range of structural changes within both human and animal brains. However, the details and mechanisms of these changes remain poorly understood. This thesis undertakes a comprehensive examination of the relationship between brain plasticity and aerobic exercise. A large, longitudinal experiment was conducted in which healthy but sedentary participants were scanned before and after six-weeks of monitored aerobic exercise. Increases in the volume of the anterior hippocampus were observed, as previously reported in an older cohort after a longer exercise intervention. Multimodal imaging methods allowed an in-depth exploration of the mechanisms underlying this volume change, which proved to be dominated by white matter changes rather than the vascular changes that have been previously reported. A surprising global change in the balance of CSF, blood, and brain tissue within the cranial cavity was also observed. Cross-sectional differences in memory and brain structure associated with fitness were also observed. The volume of the anterior hippocampus was shown to correlate with a measure of working memory. Higher cerebral blood volume throughout the brain was found to correlate with greater fitness and better working memory. Focal associations between fitness and magnetic susceptibility, a measure of iron content, were also observed in the basal ganglia. These findings demonstrate that aerobic fitness is associated with improved cognition and brain structure throughout the lifespan rather than simply acting to mitigate age related brain atrophy or accelerate brain development. Finally, a new pipeline was developed for analysing hippocampal morphometry using high-resolution, 7 Tesla scans. Striking variability in the convolution of the hippocampal surface is reported. This technique shows promise for imaging the precise nature of the change in hippocampal volume associated with aerobic exercise. This thesis adds to the evidence that aerobic exercise is a potent catalyst for behavioural and brain plasticity while also demonstrating that the mechanisms for those plastic changes are likely different than previously supposed. Future work will refine these measurement techniques, perhaps to a point where brain changes can be monitored on a single subject level. This work will provide an important tool to understand how best to utilize aerobic exercise to facilitate adaptive behavioural changes, mitigate the negative effects of ageing and disease on the brain, and maximize the benefits of active lifestyles.

The mature mammalian brain continually generates new neurons in the subventricular zone and hippocampus throughout life. Adult neurogenesis in the hippocampus is associated with hippocampal-dependent learning and memory function. During aging, this endogenous neurogenic potential is reduced which is accompanied by decreased cognitive function seen in the aging population. We have previously found that the injured adult brain shows heightened levels of endogenous neurogenesis and this response is associated with innate cognitive recovery. We have also found that basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), a potent neurotrophic polypeptide, can enhance injury-induced hippocampal neurogenesis and improve cognitive recovery following TBI. In this study, we administered bFGF into the lateral ventricle of aged rats following TBI and assessed the effect of bFGF treatment on hippocampal neurogenesis and cognitive recovery in aged animals. Specifically, male Fisher-344 rats at the age of 20 months received intraventricular infusion of bFGF for 7 days through osmotic mini-pump immediately following a moderate lateral fluid percussion injury. To label cell proliferation, animals received daily single i.p. BrdU injections for 6 days beginning 48 hr after injury. One group of animals was perfused at 1 wk after injury to assess cell proliferation. Another group of animals was first assessed for cognitive performance using the Morris water maze (MWM) at 21-25 days post-injury, then sacrificed at 4 weeks after injury to examine differentiation of newly generated cells. Brain sections were sliced and immunostained for BrdU, early neuronal marker doublecortin (DCX) and other cell type specific markers. Results showed that at 1 week post-injury, injured-aged animals infused with either vehicle or bFGF had a significantly higher number of cell proliferation in the dentate gyrus compared to sham animals. However, cell proliferation in the bFGF-infused animals was not significantly higher than vehicle-treated animals. Nevertheless, the number of DCX-labeled early stage neurons was significantly higher in the injured bFGF-treated animals than in vehicle-treated sham and injured animals. In MWM tests, unlike what we have observed in bFGF-treated younger animals, injured aged rats treated with bFGF did not show improved cognitive function. Furthermore, at 4 weeks post-injury, higher numbers of BrdU-labeled proliferative cells persisted in both injured groups, many of these cells labeled with glial and inflammatory cell markers. Collectively, the current data suggests that bFGF can enhance neurogenesis in the injured-aged hippocampus; however, this effect is not sufficient to improve functional recovery of aged rats following TBI due to the profound injury-induced inflammatory response.

Following traumatic brain injury, there is an enhanced cell proliferative and neurogenic response in the young adult hippocampus, which may be associated with innate cognitive recovery. However, in the aged brain, an increased level of inflammatory cell responses was observed following injury concomitant to decreased hippocampal neurogenesis and cognitive recovery in the aging population. This suggests that excessive inflammation produced in the injured aging brain has a detrimental effect on neurogenesis and cognitive function. In this study, we examined the effect of anti-inflammatory treatment with minocycline on cell proliferation and generation of new neurons in the dentate gyrus (DG) of the hippocampus in both young and aged rats. Fisher 344 rats aged at 3 months and 20 months were subjected to a moderate lateral fluid percussion injury (LFPI) or cortical impact injury (CCI). Minocycline was administered intraperitoneally starting either at 30 minutes or 4 hours post-injury, thereafter twice daily for 2 days. BrdU was injected at 2 days post-injury to label injury-induced proliferating cells. To examine the effect of minocycline on cell proliferation, generation of new neurons, and inflammatory cell response at the acute stage post-injury, the rats were perfused 3 days post-injury. Brain sections were immunostained for BrdU and early neuronal marker doublecortin (DCX). The results show that short-term anti-inflammatory treatment with minocycline reduces the cell proliferative response, presumably inflammatory cell responses, in young and aged rats following LFPI and CCI injury, and enhances generation of new neurons in the hippocampus in both young and aged rats following LFPI and in aged rats following CCI injury. Therapies that enhance hippocampal neurogenesis may also have potential to improve cognitive recovery following TBI.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) induces a robust cellular proliferative response among neural stem/progenitor cells (NS/NPCs) in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus. This proliferative effect is thought to contribute to the innate cognitive recovery observed following TBI. Inhibition of hippocampal neurogenesis impairs cognitive function. Furthermore, enhancement of injury-induced hippocampal neurogenesis via intraventricular administration of basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) improves cognitive function in animals following TBI. In this experiment, we investigated the direct association between injury-induced hippocampal neurogenesis and cognitive recovery utilizing an antimitotic agent, arabinofuranosyl cytidine (Ara-C). In this study, adult rats received a moderate lateral fluid percussion injury (LFPI). Immediately following injury, Ara-C with or without bFGF was infused into the lateral ventricle via an osmotic mini-pump for 7 days. To label dividing cells animals received daily single injections of 5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine (BrdU) at 2-7 days post-injury. To examine the effect of Ara-C on cell proliferation, a group of animals was sacrificed at 1 week following injury. Brain sections were immunostained for BrdU and cell type specific markers, and the number of BrdU+ cells in the hippocampus was assessed by stereology. To examine the effect of inhibition of injury-induced cell proliferation on cognitive recovery, animals were assessed on Morris water maze tasks (MWM) either at 21 to 25 days or 56-60 days post-injury. We found that post-injury Ara-C treatment significantly reduces injury-induced cell proliferation in the DG and abolishes the innate cognitive recovery on MWM performance at 56-60 days post-injury. Additionally, Ara-C diminishes bFGF enhanced cell proliferation in the DG and cognitive recovery following TBI. These results support the causal relationship between injury-induced hippocampal neurogenesis and cognitive functional recovery. Our studies suggest that the post-TBI neurogenic response is an endogenous repair mechanism that contributes to the restoration of hippocampal function post-injury.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) leads to short-term and long-term consequences that can cause many different life-long disorders. Studies of TBI have generally focused on the acute stage; however, it is now becoming important to investigate chronic responses following TBI as clinical reports of dementia and cognitive impairments have been linked to a history of TBI. Recent data have established that cognitive function is associated with hippocampal neurogenesis. Chronic injury induced changes in the brain may affect this endogenous process. Chronic responses following TBI include cell death pathways and inflammatory responses that are persistent in the brain for months to years after injury. In this study we investigate the chronic consequences of TBI on adult neurogenesis and the possible involvement of chronic-inflammation in regulating adult neurogenesis. We used two popular TBI animal models, Control Cortical Impact (CCI) and Lateral Fluid Percussion Injury (LFPI) models, to examine focal and diffuse injury responses respectively. Adult rats received CCI, LFPI, or sham injury and were sacrificed at either 15 days or 3 months after injury to examine either subacute or chronic TBI-induced responses respectively. We found no change in levels of proliferation activity at both time points in both TBI models compared to sham animals. Using Doublecortin immunolabeling we found an enhanced generation of new neurons at 15 days after injury and by 3 months this activity was significantly reduced in both TBI models compared to sham animals. We also found persistent inflammation in the injured brains at both time points. Morphological assessment showed that LFPI model of TBI causes shrinkage of the ipsilateral hippocampus. Our results show that moderate TBI induced hippocampal neurogenesis in both models at the early time post-injury. However, at chronic stage, reduced hippocampal neurogenesis is observed in both models and this is accompanied by chronic inflammation. These results suggest that persistent inflammatory responses maybe detrimental to normal neurogenic activity, leading to cognitive impairment and neurodegeneration in long-term TBI survivors.

Les neurones pyramidaux de la région CA3 de l'hippocampe présentent une diversité morphologique, physiologique, biochimique, mais aussi fonctionnelle. Une partie des caractéristiques des neurones étant acquise pendant le développement, nous avons formulé l'hypothèse que la diversité morpho-fonctionnelle des neurones pyramidaux serait déterminée aux stades embryonnaires. Pour tester cette hypothèse, nous avons utilisé des souris transgéniques pour lesquelles l'expression d'un marqueur fluorescent (GFP) est conditionnée par la date de neurogenèse des neurones glutamatergiques. Nous avons enregistré l'activité des neurones en imagerie calcique et montré que les neurones pyramidaux nés le plus tôt déchargent pendant la phase d'initiation des activités épileptiformes générées par le blocage pharmacologique de la transmission GABAergique rapide. De plus, nous montrons que ces neurones précoces possèdent des propriétés morpho-physiologiques distinctes. Enfin, nous montrons que la stimulation de neurones pyramidaux nés tôt peut générer des activités épileptiformes à des stades immatures lorsqu'ils sont stimulés en groupe, et à des stades juvéniles lorsqu'ils sont stimulés individuellement. Ainsi nous démontrons qu'il existe un lien entre la date de neurogenèse et les propriétés morpho-fonctionnelles des neurones pyramidaux de CA3. / There is increasing evidence that CA3 pyramidal cells are biochemically, electrophysiologically, morphologically and functionally diverse. As most of these properties are acquired during development, we hypothesized that the heterogeneity of the morphofunctionnal properties of pyramidal cells could be determined at the early stages of life. To test this hypothesis, we used a transgenic mouse line in which we glutamatergic cells are labelled with GFP according to their birth date. Using calcium imaging, we recorded multineuron activity in hippocampal slices and show that early generated pyramidal neurons fire during the build-up phase of epileptiform activities generated in the absence of fast GABAergic transmission. Moreover, we show that early generated pyramidal neurons display distinct morpho-physiological properties. Finally, we demonstrate that early generated neurons can generate epileptiform activities when stimulated as assemblies at immature stages, and when stimulated individually at juvenile stages. Thus we suggest a link between the date of birth and the morpho-functional properties of CA3 pyramidal neurons.

Les progéniteurs endothéliaux semblent offrir de nouvelles perspectives dans le traitement des pathologies ischémiques. Nos travaux portent sur l'étude des effets d'une transplantation d'une sous population homogène de progéniteurs endothéliaux dits tardifs, les ECFCs, sur un modèle d'occlusion de l'artère cérébrale moyenne (MCAO) transitoire chez le rat. 4x106 ECFCs cultivés à partir du sang de cordon humain ou 1ml de PBS ont été injectés en intraveineuse (IV) 24h après une MCAO d'une durée d'une heure chez les rats appartenant respectivement au groupe greffé et au groupe contrôle. On a pu mettre en évidence le passage des cellules greffées dans l'hémisphère cérébral ischémié par radiomarquage à l'oxinate d'indium 111 (111In) et marquage fluorescent au CM-Dil des ECFCs avant transplantation. Ceci a été confirmé par la visualisation d'ECFCs d'origine humaine en périphérie de la zone infarcie par marquages immunohistochimiques au MAB1281 et CD31. La transplantation d'ECFCs a augmenté significativement le taux de survie et a amélioré la récupération fonctionnelle des animaux. L'effet bénéfique observé est associé à une réduction du nombre de cellules apoptotiques ainsi qu'une augmentation de la densité capillaire et de la neurogenèse en périphérie de la zone lésée. Ces effets semblent corrélés à une surexpression en zone de pénombre de VEGF et IGF1 aux propriétés pro-angiogéniques et neurotrophiques, et à une diminution de l'expression d'un facteur pro-apoptotique proBDNF. De plus, nous avons montré que les ECFCs sont capables de sécréter des cytokines pro-angiogéniques. / Endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) seem to be a promising option to treat patients with ischemic diseases. Here, we investigated the effects of late EPCs or Endothelial Colony-Forming Cells (ECFCs), a recently defined homogeneous subtype of EPCs, in a rat model of transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). Either vehicle or 4.106 ECFCs, isolated from human cord blood, were intravenously injected 24h after 1 hour of MCAO in rats assigned to control and transplanted groups respectively. 111In-oxine-labeled ECFCs specifically homed to ischemic hemisphere and CM-Dil prelabeled ECFCs preferentially settled in the inner boundary of the core area of transplanted animals. The presence of human cells in rat brain sections was detected by immunohistochemical staining (MAB1281, CD31). We demonstrated that ECFCs injected 24h after MCAO improved functional recovery and survival rate. Beneficial effect was associated with an increase in growth factors expression in homogenates from ischemic area (VEGF, IGF-1, proBDNF) and may be related to the secretion by ECFCs of soluble factors that could affect apoptosis, vascular growth and neurogenesis. These findings raise perspectives for the use of ECFCs as a well-characterized cell therapy product for optimal therapeutic outcome after stroke.