Methylmercury (MeHg) is a ubiquitous contaminant and potent neurotoxicant with no completely effective therapy, although selenium antagonises MeHg toxicity. Furthermore, nanoparticles are promising as a novel drug delivery system. We researched the potential of selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) in antagonising MeHg neurotoxicity compared to selenomethionine (SeMet) using primary astrocyte cell cultures and examining outcomes related to oxidative stress. We found that SeNPs were more toxic than SeMet. Increasing SeNPs significantly decreased MeHg cellular uptake and MeHg significantly decreased uptake of SeNPs at the highest concentration. Finally, SeNPs alone produced significantly higher reactive oxidative species and altered the ratio of reduced-to-oxidised glutathione, but MeHg, SeMet, and co-exposures did not. There were no significant effects on glutathione peroxidase or reductase activity. This suggests that SeNPs are more toxic than MeHg in cerebellar astrocytes and that they may not be suitable as a therapy at the doses and formulation used in this research.

Valacyclovir is an oral antiviral agent being used more frequently than acyclovir because of the ease of administration and efficacy. Serious neuropsychiatric side effects have been demonstrated with the use of valacyclovir in renal failure patients. We report a case of valacyclovir neurotoxicity to emphasis the importance of dose adjustment in patients with chronic kidney disease and on dialysis.

Bupivacaine is one of the amide type local anesthetics and is widely used for epidural anesthesia and blockade of nerves. Bupivacaine administration locally could result in neuron injury showing transient neurologic symptoms. Dexamethasone is a synthetic glucocorticoid and may exert cytoprotective properties against damage induced by some stimuli. In the present study, we evaluated the effects of dexamethasone on bupivacaine-induced toxicity in mouse neuroblastoma N2a cells. N2a cells were exposed to bupivacaine in the presence or absence of dexamethasone. After treatment, the cell viability, nuclear condensation, and lactate dehydrogenase levels were evaluated. Mitochondrial potential and Akt (threonine-serine protein kinase B) activation were also examined. In a separate experiment, we examined the effect of Akt inhibition by triciribine on cell viability following dexamethasone treatment. We also investigated whether dexamethasone could prevent lidocaine-induced neurotoxicity. Treatment of N2a cells with bupivacaine resulted in significant cell injury as evidenced by morphological changes, LDH leakage, and nuclear condensation. Pretreatment of the cells with dexamethasone significantly attenuated bupivacaine- and lidocaine-induced cell injury. Dexamethasone treatment prevented the decline of mitochondrial potential caused by bupivacaine and increased the levels of Akt phosphorylation. Importantly, pharmacological inhibition of Akt abolished the protective effect of dexamethasone against bupivacaine-induced cell injury. Our data suggest that pretreatment of neuroblastoma cells with dexamethasone exerts a protective effect on bupivacaine-induced neuronal cell injury. The mechanisms involve activating the Akt signaling pathway.

At motor nerve terminals, Hg2+ causes (a) irreversible depolarization, (b) increase in transmitter release, and (c) subsequent irreversible block of transmitter release. All effects are antagonized when a Na channel blocker (tetrodotoxin, TTX) and a Ca channel blocker (Co2+) are present, but not when either blocker is used alone. The effects are not antagonized by TTX plus Co2+ when the mercurial is lipid-soluble (methylmercury). This indicates that the neurotoxic action of Hg2+ is at an intracellular site and that entry is gained through both Na and Ca channels. The results suggest that metals may inhibit transmitter release at either the Ca channel or at the release site, but that irreversible toxicity is due to an intracellular action, possibly involving SH groups.

Malaria (vector: Anopheles gambiae) is a major infectious disease that kills about 1 million people each year. For the improvement of its treatment and vector control during the past decades, several issues such as high medicine cost, insecticide resistance, and lack of an effective vaccine have prevented adequate control of malaria. Additionally, the low selectivity of malaria vector insecticides also presents a public health problem. The purpose of developing novel carbamate insecticides in our laboratory is to offer effective and selective insecticide options to achieve the ultimate goal of malaria control. First, 50% inhibition concentration (IC50) data was collected from three mammalian AChEs with eight commercial carbamate insecticides by using the Ellman assay. The IC50 values varied from 57 nM to 7358 nM. The AChE sensitivity pattern and level were shown to be similar between the recombinant mouse and ICR male mouse brain cortex homogenate (slope = 0.99, R2 = 0.96). Then eight novel carbamate insecticides that are possible malaria vector control agents were selected for further neurotoxicity testing in non-target organisms. For commercial carbamate insecticides, the IC50 varied from 9.1 nM to 2,094 nM. For the novel carbamate insecticides, it varied from 58 nM to 388,800 nM. Based on IC50 data from previous work on A. gambiae, the selectivity index (IC50 of non-target species / IC50 A. gambiae) ranged from 0.17 to 5.64 and from 0.47 to 19,587 for commercial and novel carbamate insecticides, respectively. Subsequently, the AChE protein sequence alignment comparison and cladogram were used to compare the genetic and evolutionary relationship among five different organisms. The alignment score ranged from 88 for mouse vs. human to 54 for hen vs. T. californica. The evolutionary relationships among species was obtained from the cladogram. Recombinant mouse vs. recombinant human was shown to have the most similar inhibitor potency profiles (alignment score = 88, closest taxa position on cladogram, similar AChE sensitivity pattern [R2 = 0.81] and level [P > 0.05] to the novel carbamates). Neurotoxic esterase (NTE) assay showed that the novel carbamates did not significantly inhibit NTE, inhibition of which underlies a significant hazard for anticholinesterases, especially organophosphates, in several nontarget vertebrate organisms. The NTE activity in the presence of novel carbamate insecticides ranged from 93% to 116% of the control, while in the commercial group, bendiocarb significantly inhibited NTE, leaving only 76.5% of the initial reactivity at 1 mM inhibitor concentration. Further in vivo bioassay using Daphnia magna was conducted to compare the aquatic toxicity of commercial and novel carbamates. The data showed that except for PRC331 (3-tert-butylphenylmethylcarbamate), all novel carbamates were of similar potency as bendiocarb (LC50 = 611 nM) for aquatic toxicity, and their LC50 values ranged from 172 nM (PRC331) to 1109 nM. In conclusion, the novel carbamate insecticides would appear to be an improvement over commercial carbamate insecticides because of greater selectivity, negligible NTE inhibition capacity, but in some cases with potent in vivo toxicity to Daphnia magna. However, since the envisioned usage of these compounds is in bednets or as indoor residual sprays (IRS), any environmental exposures to nontarget aquatic organisms are expected to be minimal. / Master of Science

The mitochondrial membrane bound flavoenzymes monoamine oxidase A and B (MAO-A and MAO-B) catalyze the a-carbon oxidation of a variety of amines including neurotransmitters such as dopamine and serotonin. Although the primary structures of these enzymes have been established from the corresponding gene sequences, relatively little is known regarding the structural features of the active sites which lead to the selectivities observed with various substrates and inhibitors. In spite of many efforts, these enzymes have not been crystallized. In the absence of X-ray structures, the design, synthesis, and evaluation of biological activity remain the only way to assess a view of the active sites, through SAR and QSAR studies. The excellent MAO-A and/or B substrate and inhibitor properties of various 1,4-disubstituted-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine derivatives offer an interesting opportunity to probe the active sites of MAO-A and MAO-B. In an effort to explore the spatial features of the active sites, we have synthesized series of substituted tetrahydropyridines, evaluated their biological activity with purified MAO-A and MAO-B, and carried out a topological analysis of the MAO active sites using molecular modeling. In addition, the results described in this thesis provide evidence that the MAO-A and MAO-B active sites differ in shape, regions of activity, and areas that tolerate polar interactions. The role of MAO in neurodegenerative processes such as Parkinson's Disease has been recognized for some time. The structurally unique parkinsonian inducing substrate 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) is bioactivated to neurotoxic metabolites. The mechanism of neurotoxicity has been studied extensively and it is known that MAO-B catalyzes the conversion of MPTP to the 2,3-dihydro-1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium species (MPDP+) which undergoes further oxidation to the neurotoxic metabolite 1-methyl-4-phenyl pyridnium (MPP+). However, the role of MAO-A in mediating a neurotoxic response, has not been fully defined due to the lack of selective MAO-A substrates. In this thesis, we have investigated the neurotoxic potential of several tetrahydropyridines in C57Bl/6 mice and the ability of selective inhibitors to protect against the expression of MAO mediated neurotoxicity. / Ph. D.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is an age-related neurodegenerative disease, which is characterized by severe loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) and consequent dopamine depletion in its projecting area. In this dissertation, I evaluated the neurotoxicity of several classes of insecticides/drugs/neurotoxins to the striatal dopaminergic pathway and their potential relationship to Parkinsonism in the C57BL/6 mouse model, using biochemical and molecular biology methods. In the first objective, I investigated the neurotoxicity in striatal dopaminergic pathways following co-application of permethrin (PM), chlorpyrifos (CPF) and 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP). The study was done because pyrethroid and organophosphorus compounds are widely used insecticides and they have been implicated in Gulf War Syndrome. We found that short-term, high-dose exposure to PM or CPF had no significant effects on the expression of dopamine transporter (DAT), tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), or α-synuclein protein in striatal nerve terminals, but the insecticides slightly enhanced the neurotoxicity of MPTP in C57BL/6 mice at 28 days post-treatment. This finding indicates a slowly developing neurotoxicity may occur after termination of high-dose exposure. Long-term, low-dose exposure to PM did not show significant neurotoxicity to striatal dopaminergic pathways when given alone, nor did this injection of PM enhance the neutotoxicity of MPTP in C57BL/6 mice. In addition, experiments with pure cis or trans isomers of permethrin showed that both cis and trans isomers contributed equally to the neurotoxicity of PM in the short-term high dose study. Previous studies demonstrated a deficiency in mitochondrial function in PD, and a high density of K⁺ATP channels are present in substantia nigra, which play an important role in the maintenance of the membrane potential under metabolic stress. Therefore, in the second objective, I investigated the effect of K⁺ATP channel blockage on the neurotoxicity of mitochondrial-directed neurotoxins to striatal dopaminergic pathways. I found that mitochondrial inhibitors are potent releasers of preloaded dopamine from striatal nerve terminals, with the most potent compounds active in the nanomolar range. Co-application of the K⁺ATP channel blocker glibenclamide selectively increased the dopamine-releasing effect by complex I inhibitors in vitro, and potentiated the neurotoxicity of MPTP (a complex I inhibitor) on DAT and TH expression, in vivo. Mechanistic studies demonstrated that mitochondrial inhibitor-induced dopamine release is Ca²⁺-dependent. In addition, the selectivity of glibenclamide is not correlated to ATP depletion, but associated with the generation of excessive reactive oxygen species at the site of complex I. In the third objective, I conducted comparative studies on the mode of action of rotenone-/reserpine-/tetrabenzaine (TBZ)-induced depletion, in vitro, as these three compounds share some similarities in their chemical structures. I found that rotenone, reserpine and TBZ selectively released preloaded dopamine and serotonin (5-HT), with the rank order as rotenone>reserpine>TBZ. Mechanistic studies demonstrated more than one mechanism was involved in both rotenone- and reserpine-induced neurotransmitter release. Ca²⁺-stimulated vesicular release and neurotransmitter transporter-mediated release are the common mechanisms involved in rotenone- and reserpine-induced dopamine release. Overall, the insecticides/drugs/neurotoxins tested in the above experiments all exhibited some effect on the nigrastrital dopaminergic pathway, either alone or by enhancing the toxicity of other chemicals in combination treatment. / Ph. D.

Forty rats, in groups of ten, were orally dosed with corn oil, corn oil and 2,000 mg/kg trichloroethylene (TCE), corn oil and 2,000 mg/kg lead carbonate, or a mixture of 2,000 mg/kg each TCE and lead carbonate, in an effort to determine whether or not dual administration of both TCE and lead would have an additive effect on neurotoxicity and overall health as indicated by behavioral and physiologic measurements and tissue pathology. A functional observational test battery (FOB) was performed before, during, and after dose administration to assess dose-related changes. The FOB testing assessed behavioral and physiologic measurements such as gait, open field activity, posture, grip strength, and handling reactivity. Pathological examination included assessing dosing related changes in the testis, spleen, heart, liver, kidney-adrenals, and brain. Results indicated that each compound was toxic individually, and that the combination of the two neurotoxicants provided conflicting indications of both reduced and additive toxicity. The toxicity of lead carbonate caused the vast majority of toxic consequences in the study. A reduction in body weight and an increased resistance to cage removal were the only statistically significant changes observed in the FOB that were due to concurrent administration of lead and TCE. Organ-to-body weight and organ-to-brain weight calculations showed evidence of a statistical difference between the lead and lead/TCE dosed animals for liver, kidney-adrenals, and body weight. The significance of these changes is not fully understood. / Master of Science

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a debilitating motor disorder that primarily afflicts older individuals (> 50yrs). Although its cause is unknown, many factors are thought to contribute to the disease. There is growing epidemiological evidence supporting a link between pesticide exposure and PD. The present immunohistochemical study was undertaken to characterize the role of insecticide exposure in the etiology of idiopathic PD. The insecticides selected for study were the pyrethroid permethrin (PE) and the organophosphate chlorpyrifos (CP), both of which possess properties that could damage or disrupt the nigrostriatal pathway, which is the principal neurodegenerative target in PD. The present study examined possible alteration of the amount of dopamine re-uptake transporter protein (DAT), within the striatum of the C57BL/6 mouse, using DAT antibodies, following low (0.8, 1.5 & 3.0 mg/kg) and high (200 mg/kg) doses of PE, respectively. Possible nigrostriatal terminal degeneration was examined using antibodies to tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), the rate-limiting enzyme in dopamine synthesis, following treatment with 50 mg/kg of CP alone or in combination with the high dose of PE. For both the high dose of PE alone and for the combined PE/CP treatment, glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) antibodies were used to examine the possibility of non-degenerative tissue injury. Groups of matched treated/vehicle-control mice received three IP injections of the insecticide/dose of interest over a 2-week period. Counts of immunoreactive (IR) neuropil in the dorsolateral striatum were made from four pre-selected fields per striatal tissue section. Counts were compared between matched sections, processed on the same slide, from a treated mouse and its vehicle control. A mean difference score, across slides, for each treated/vehicle control pair was determined. All low dose PE groups showed a trend of decreased DAT IR neuropil, but only the 3.0mg/kg group showed a statistically significant reduction (p<.0078). The 200 mg/kg PE group showed a trend toward reduced TH IR neuropil that was not statistically significant, but a significant increase in GFAP IR (p = .048) was observed. No significant change in TH IR neuropil was observed for CP (50mg/kg) alone. A significant increase was observed for GFAP IR neuropil for the PE/CP (200/50 mg/kg) combination dose (p = .033). The combined insecticide treatment failed, however, to produce a significant change in TH IR within the striatum, compared to vehicle controls. These data suggest that the significant increases in GFAP IR neuropil, in the striatum, reflect some form of tissue insult, following exposure to a high dose of PE, or PE/CP in combination, that is insufficient to induce degeneration of dopaminergic terminals within the temporal interval investigated. Although such damage may be sufficient to account for previously reported decreases in maximal dopamine uptake observed with high doses of these compounds, the DAT IR data appear to indicate that this damage is unlikely to be a change in the amount of DAT in these high dose conditions. The decreases in striatal DAT IR neuropil observed for low doses of PE suggest an alteration in the normal integrity of the nigrostriatal pathway and in the route by which environmental toxins may enter dopaminergic neurons. / Master of Science

In newborns, unconjugated bilirubin (UCB) is not readily excreted, and when bilirubin levels exceed the serum albumin binding capacity, pathological levels of UCB exist. Hyperbilirubinemia may lead to auditory damage and ultimately cause a hearing disorder called auditory neuropathy/dys-synchrony, characterized by absent or abnormal brainstem auditory evoked potentials (BAEPs) with evidence of normal inner ear function assessed by either otoacoustic emissions or cochlear microphonic responses. Phototherapy and double volume exchange transfusion are used as treatment methods for neonatal hyperbilirubinemia. Spontaneously jaundiced Gunn rat pups given sulfadimethoxine to displace bilirubin from serum albumin develop bilirubin encephalopathy and have abnormal BAEPs comparable to human neonates. BAEPs are a noninvasive electrophysiological measure of neural function of the auditory system. High levels of calcineurin activity are believed to be involved in the mechanism of this bilirubin induced auditory neuropathy. FK506, a calcineurin inhibitor, was administered 3 hours prior to sulfa in concentrations of 0.1mg/kg, 1.0mg/kg, and 10.0mg/kg body weight. Due to the observation that all animals had abnormal BAEPs after treatment with FK506 and sulfa, it can be concluded that none of the treatment doses protected against bilirubin induced auditory impairment.