Diss. Recht Bern, 1936.

El objetivo de la presente Tesis Doctoral es plantear un estudio detallado acerca del término FOB (Free on Board) de los Incoterms (International Commercial Terms). Estos términos, periódicamente redactados y actualizados por la Cámara de Comercio Internacional, gozan de una amplia difusión en el que es su medio natural: el comercio internacional de mercancías. Pero, ¿cuál es el motivo de ese éxito? Numerosos factores pueden contribuir a explicar la gran aceptación de los Incoterms en general y de la modalidad FOB en particular. Por un lado, este término se beneficia de un contexto económico favorable, en el cual los avances en los transportes y comunicaciones han facilitado como nunca antes en la historia los intercambios comerciales. Por otro lado, el contexto jurídico del comercio internacional también resulta propicio para la modalidad FOB, dado el elevado margen de maniobra y negociación que tanto los ordenamientos jurídicos nacionales como los tratados internacionales conceden a las partes en los contratos de compraventa. Pero no sólo en base a los factores externos puede explicarse la amplia difusión de la modalidad FOB. El término FOB constituye una modalidad de compraventa, preferentemente aunque no exclusivamente internacional, y la clave de su éxito radica en su calidad jurídica. Remitiéndose a este término, las partes contratantes pueden conocer los aspectos más importantes de una transacción, como puede ser la transmisión de los riesgos de pérdida o avería de la mercancía, el reparto de los gastos, la distribución de las obligaciones o cuál de las partes debe concertar los contratos accesorios de transporte y seguro. Además, los integrantes del contrato de compraventa pueden modificar este término o añadir especificaciones para que su contenido se adapte mejor a sus necesidades concretas. A lo largo de esta Tesis, el lector podrá comprobar cómo la modalidad FOB de la compraventa, lejos de ser un elemento aislado, convive y se relaciona con su contexto económico y jurídico, la problemática que plantea su enunciado, así como las soluciones que las leyes, la jurisprudencia y la doctrina han ofrecido a tales interrogantes, tanto en nuestro país como en el extranjero. / The objective of the present Doctoral Thesis is to outline a detailed study about the FOB term (Free on Board) of the Incoterms (International Commercial Terms). These terms, periodically edited and upgraded by the International Chamber of Commerce, enjoy a wide diffusion in its field: the international trade of goods. But, which is the reason of that success? Numerous factors can contribute to explain the great acceptance of the Incoterms in general and of the FOB modality in particular. On one hand, this term benefits of a favorable economic context, in which the advances in the transports and communications have facilitated as never before in the history the commercial exchanges. On the other hand, the juridical context of the international trade is also favorable for the FOB term, given the high maneuver and negotiation margin that the national law and the international treaties grant to the parts in the sale and purchase contracts. But the external factors are not the only ones that can explain the wide diffusion of the FOB modality. The FOB term constitutes a sale and purchase modality, preferably although not exclusively international, and the key of its success resides in its juridical quality. Being remitted to this term, the contracting parties can know the most important aspects in a transaction, like the transmission of the risks of loss or damages of the merchandise, the allotment of the expenses, the distribution of the obligations or which of the parts should concert the accessory contracts of transport and assurance. Also, the members of the sale and purchase contract can modify this term or add specifications, so that their content adapts better to their concrete necessities. Along this Thesis, the reader will be able to check how the FOB modality of the sale and purchase, far from being an isolated element, cohabits and is related with its economic and juridical context, the problematic that outlines its enunciated, as well as the solutions that the laws, the jurisprudence and the doctrine have offered to such queries, so much in our country as abroad.

Forty rats, in groups of ten, were orally dosed with corn oil, corn oil and 2,000 mg/kg trichloroethylene (TCE), corn oil and 2,000 mg/kg lead carbonate, or a mixture of 2,000 mg/kg each TCE and lead carbonate, in an effort to determine whether or not dual administration of both TCE and lead would have an additive effect on neurotoxicity and overall health as indicated by behavioral and physiologic measurements and tissue pathology. A functional observational test battery (FOB) was performed before, during, and after dose administration to assess dose-related changes. The FOB testing assessed behavioral and physiologic measurements such as gait, open field activity, posture, grip strength, and handling reactivity. Pathological examination included assessing dosing related changes in the testis, spleen, heart, liver, kidney-adrenals, and brain. Results indicated that each compound was toxic individually, and that the combination of the two neurotoxicants provided conflicting indications of both reduced and additive toxicity. The toxicity of lead carbonate caused the vast majority of toxic consequences in the study. A reduction in body weight and an increased resistance to cage removal were the only statistically significant changes observed in the FOB that were due to concurrent administration of lead and TCE. Organ-to-body weight and organ-to-brain weight calculations showed evidence of a statistical difference between the lead and lead/TCE dosed animals for liver, kidney-adrenals, and body weight. The significance of these changes is not fully understood. / Master of Science

ICC – International Chamber of commerce in 1936 first time introduced Incoterms clause. The Incoterms in the most simply way that may be defined as delivery terms. It represents seller’s and buyer’s (manufacturer and customer) relationship in the sales of good contract regarding the goods delivery clause. There were more than one revision of Incoterms until the latest 2010 versions has been released. Incoterms 2010 separated delivery terms into two different transportation ways – sea and inland waterway (4 rules) and any mode of transport (7 rules). These rules mostly are combined with the contract of sales of goods and define the way how the goods will be delivered for the buyer. The most important thing that Incoterms represent is the liability separation between the seller and the buyer. It became clear what obligations and duties the contracting parties has. These rules led to have easier communication between the seller and the buyer when the delivery clause was negotiated. Today the Incoterrms 2010 suggest 11 delivery terms, where the parties may choose the most suitable term for them. All terms are divided into 4 groups and each of them has its own features. In this paper are discussed 2 of it: F group and D group. F and D groups consist from 3 terms each. In the work is analyzed FOB and DDP terms. First of it are suitable for the water and inland transport and second one for any mode of transport. In this paper is analyzed the seller’s responsibility when he agrees... [to full text] / 1936 m. ICC – Tarptautiniai komercijos rūmai (angl. International Chamber of Commerce) pirmą kartą pristatė Incoterms sąlygas. Incoterms sąlygas galima apibūdinti kaip prekių pristatymo sąlygas. Incoterms apibūdina pardavėjo ir pirkėjo (gamintojo ir kliento) pareigas pristatant prekes kai yra pasirašyta pirkimo – pardavimo sutartis. Incoterms buvo ne kartą tobulintos iki buvo išleista paskutinė – 2010 m. versija. Incoterms 2010 išskiria du prekių pristatymo būdus: vienas jų, kai prekės gabenamos jūromis ar vidaus vandens keliais (4 taisyklės), antras – terminai tinkamai bet kuriai transport rūšiai (7 taisyklės). Šios taisyklės yar naudojamos kartu su pirkimo – pardavimo sutartimis, kur nusako, kaip prekės bus pristatytos pirkėjui. Labai svarbu paminėti tai, kad Incoterms taisyklės leidžia atskirti pardavėjo ir pirkėjo atsakomybę gabenant krovinius. Taisyklės apibūdina, už ką yra atsakinga kiekviena šalis. Šios taisyklės leido supaprastinti tarptautinę prekybą ir santykius tarp pardavėjo ir pirkėjo. Šiandien Incoterms pateikia 11 prekių pristatymo taisyklių, kurias šalys gali laisvai rinktis pagal savo poreikius ir galimybes. Visos taisyklės, pagal jų bruožus yra suskirstytos į 4 grupes. Šiame darbe yra aptariamos F ir D grupės, kurias sudaro po 3 terminus. Darbo metu yra analizuojamos FOB ir DDP taisyklės. FOB terminas taikomas kai prekės yra gabenamos vandens transportu, o DDP – bet kuria transporto rūšimi. Darbe aiškinama, kokią atsakomybę įgija pardavėjas, kai prekių... [toliau žr. visą tekstą]

I detta arbete undersöks Incoterms® 2010 maritima villkor, FAS. Framförallt hur det kommer sig att den inte används lika ofta som de övriga samt vad som är avgörande vid valet av villkor. Undersökningen genomfördes med en kvalitativ ansats och data samlades in genom litteraturstudie samt två kvalitativa intervjuer: en företagsrepresentant och en sakkunnig inom logistikrätt. En teorigenomgång av både allmän karaktär av Incoterms® samt tidigare forskning kring dess användning blev grunden till det teoretiska ramverket. Resultatet visar flera olika faktorer till att FAS inte används lika ofta som de övriga villkoren. De mest framträdande faktorerna är riskövergången, brytpunkter, betalning samt okunskap. / This work presents a study of the Incoterms® 2010 seaterm, FAS. The main questions are; why is it not used as often as the other terms for sea transportation, and, what are the main decisions when choosing Incoterms®. The study was carried out with a qualitative approach and data were collected through a literature study and two qualitative interviews; one with a company representative, and one who is an expert in logistics law. A theoretical review of Incoterms® and previous research, constructs the theoretical framework used. The result show several aspects for FAS not being used as often as the other terms. Most common aspects are; passing of risk, break point, payment and lack of knowledge.

I detta arbete undersöks Incoterms® 2010 maritima villkor, FAS. Framförallt hur det kommer sig att den inte används lika ofta som de övriga samt vad som är avgörande vid valet av villkor. Undersökningen genomfördes med en kvalitativ ansats och data samlades in genom litteraturstudie samt två kvalitativa intervjuer: en företagsrepresentant och en sakkunnig inom logistikrätt. En teorigenomgång av både allmän karaktär av Incoterms® samt tidigare forskning kring dess användning blev grunden till det teoretiska ramverket. Resultatet visar flera olika faktorer till att FAS inte används lika ofta som de övriga villkoren. De mest framträdande faktorerna är riskövergången, brytpunkter, betalning samt okunskap. / This work presents a study of the Incoterms® 2010 seaterm, FAS. The main questions are; why is it not used as often as the other terms for sea transportation, and, what are the main decisions when choosing Incoterms®. The study was carried out with a qualitative approach and data were collected through a literature study and two qualitative interviews; one with a company representative, and one who is an expert in logistics law. A theoretical review of Incoterms® and previous research, constructs the theoretical framework used. The result show several aspects for FAS not being used as often as the other terms. Most common aspects are; passing of risk, break point, payment and lack of knowledge.

A necessidade de investigação de métodos alternativos a gastroscopia, para o diagnóstico e mensuração da graduação da Síndrome da Úlcera Gástrica em Equinos, tem sido constatada. Diante desta realidade, este estudo objetivou verificar a eficiência dos testes de Permeabilidade Gástrica à Sacarose e pela intensidade de Sangue Oculto nas Fezes, na mensuração da graduação de lesões estomacais comparadas ao diagnóstico padrão ouro, a Gastroscopia. Para o desenvolvimento da pesquisa foram investigados 16 cavalos com idades entre 4 e 6 anos, os quais trabalham em pelotão de guarda, participam de práticas de hipismo e jogos de Polo. A seleção deste corpus foi baseada em cavalos que são submetidos a fatores de risco, como por exemplo: tempo indeterminado de descanso, alimentação de baixa qualidade, pouca oferta de feno, longos períodos de transporte. Para o exame de gastroscopia, foi realizado jejum alimentar de 20 horas e hídrico de 10 horas, mais a sondagem nasogástrica para obtermos o esvaziamento gástrico. Para o exame de Permeabilidade Gástrica à Sacarose, foi administrado 250g de sacarose por via nasogástrica, e foi coletado sangue no momento zero, 45 e 90min, para posterior análise por Cromatografia Líquida de Alta Eficiência. / The need of investigation of alternative methods to gastroscopy for the diagnosis and measurement of the degree of the Gastric Ulcer Syndrome in Horses has been found. In the face of this reality, this study aims to verify the efficiency of the Gastric Permeability to Sucrose tests and by the intensity in the Fecal Occult Blood in the measurement of the degree of stomach lesions compared to the diagnosis, golden standard, the gastroscopy. To the development of the research 16 horses were investigated between 4 and 6 years old, which worked in the guard squad, participated in equestrian practices and Polo games. The selection of this corpus was based in horses that are submitted to risk factors, such as: underdetermined rest time, low quality feeding, little hay offer, long transportation periods, among others. To the gastroscopy examination it was conducted 20 hours feeding fasts and 10 hours water fasts plus the nasogastric intubation to obtain gastric emptying. For the Gastric Permeability to Sucrose exam it was administered 250g of sucrose, via nasogastric tube, and was collected blood in the zero moment, 45 and 90 min., for later analysis by High Performance Liquid Chromatography through the method proposed by Hewetson et al., 2006. To the Fecal Occult Blood Test, we collected a fecal sample through the rectum to the analysis with the Meyer’s Reagent and we classified by crosses the intensity of occult blood. In the results we found out that the horses with the ulcer degree equal or higher than 3, the Gastric Permeability to Sucrose test proved itself device of reliable auxiliary diagnosis, yet the analysis of the intensity of the Fecal Occult Blood was not able to measure the degree of the stomach lesions. However, all the animals which presented gastric alterations had the presence of fecal occult blood. Para o exame de Sangue Oculto nas Fezes, coletamos uma amostra de fezes por via retal para análise com Reativo de Meyer, e classificamos por cruzes a intensidade de sangue oculto. Nos resultados, 43,75% não apresentaram quaisquer lesão estomacal, 31,25% apresentaram lesão grau 1 ou 2, e 25% apresentaram lesões grau 4. Encontramos que cavalos com o grau igual, ou maior a 3, de lesão gástrica, o teste de Permeabilidade Gástrica à Sacarose se demonstrou um meio de diagnóstico auxiliar confiável. Já a análise da intensidade de Sangue Oculto nas Fezes não foi capaz de mensurar a graduação de lesões estomacais. Porém todos os animais que apresentaram alterações gástricas tiveram a presença de sangue oculto nas fezes.

A necessidade de investigação de métodos alternativos a gastroscopia, para o diagnóstico e mensuração da graduação da Síndrome da Úlcera Gástrica em Equinos, tem sido constatada. Diante desta realidade, este estudo objetivou verificar a eficiência dos testes de Permeabilidade Gástrica à Sacarose e pela intensidade de Sangue Oculto nas Fezes, na mensuração da graduação de lesões estomacais comparadas ao diagnóstico padrão ouro, a Gastroscopia. Para o desenvolvimento da pesquisa foram investigados 16 cavalos com idades entre 4 e 6 anos, os quais trabalham em pelotão de guarda, participam de práticas de hipismo e jogos de Polo. A seleção deste corpus foi baseada em cavalos que são submetidos a fatores de risco, como por exemplo: tempo indeterminado de descanso, alimentação de baixa qualidade, pouca oferta de feno, longos períodos de transporte. Para o exame de gastroscopia, foi realizado jejum alimentar de 20 horas e hídrico de 10 horas, mais a sondagem nasogástrica para obtermos o esvaziamento gástrico. Para o exame de Permeabilidade Gástrica à Sacarose, foi administrado 250g de sacarose por via nasogástrica, e foi coletado sangue no momento zero, 45 e 90min, para posterior análise por Cromatografia Líquida de Alta Eficiência. / The need of investigation of alternative methods to gastroscopy for the diagnosis and measurement of the degree of the Gastric Ulcer Syndrome in Horses has been found. In the face of this reality, this study aims to verify the efficiency of the Gastric Permeability to Sucrose tests and by the intensity in the Fecal Occult Blood in the measurement of the degree of stomach lesions compared to the diagnosis, golden standard, the gastroscopy. To the development of the research 16 horses were investigated between 4 and 6 years old, which worked in the guard squad, participated in equestrian practices and Polo games. The selection of this corpus was based in horses that are submitted to risk factors, such as: underdetermined rest time, low quality feeding, little hay offer, long transportation periods, among others. To the gastroscopy examination it was conducted 20 hours feeding fasts and 10 hours water fasts plus the nasogastric intubation to obtain gastric emptying. For the Gastric Permeability to Sucrose exam it was administered 250g of sucrose, via nasogastric tube, and was collected blood in the zero moment, 45 and 90 min., for later analysis by High Performance Liquid Chromatography through the method proposed by Hewetson et al., 2006. To the Fecal Occult Blood Test, we collected a fecal sample through the rectum to the analysis with the Meyer’s Reagent and we classified by crosses the intensity of occult blood. In the results we found out that the horses with the ulcer degree equal or higher than 3, the Gastric Permeability to Sucrose test proved itself device of reliable auxiliary diagnosis, yet the analysis of the intensity of the Fecal Occult Blood was not able to measure the degree of the stomach lesions. However, all the animals which presented gastric alterations had the presence of fecal occult blood. Para o exame de Sangue Oculto nas Fezes, coletamos uma amostra de fezes por via retal para análise com Reativo de Meyer, e classificamos por cruzes a intensidade de sangue oculto. Nos resultados, 43,75% não apresentaram quaisquer lesão estomacal, 31,25% apresentaram lesão grau 1 ou 2, e 25% apresentaram lesões grau 4. Encontramos que cavalos com o grau igual, ou maior a 3, de lesão gástrica, o teste de Permeabilidade Gástrica à Sacarose se demonstrou um meio de diagnóstico auxiliar confiável. Já a análise da intensidade de Sangue Oculto nas Fezes não foi capaz de mensurar a graduação de lesões estomacais. Porém todos os animais que apresentaram alterações gástricas tiveram a presença de sangue oculto nas fezes.

A necessidade de investigação de métodos alternativos a gastroscopia, para o diagnóstico e mensuração da graduação da Síndrome da Úlcera Gástrica em Equinos, tem sido constatada. Diante desta realidade, este estudo objetivou verificar a eficiência dos testes de Permeabilidade Gástrica à Sacarose e pela intensidade de Sangue Oculto nas Fezes, na mensuração da graduação de lesões estomacais comparadas ao diagnóstico padrão ouro, a Gastroscopia. Para o desenvolvimento da pesquisa foram investigados 16 cavalos com idades entre 4 e 6 anos, os quais trabalham em pelotão de guarda, participam de práticas de hipismo e jogos de Polo. A seleção deste corpus foi baseada em cavalos que são submetidos a fatores de risco, como por exemplo: tempo indeterminado de descanso, alimentação de baixa qualidade, pouca oferta de feno, longos períodos de transporte. Para o exame de gastroscopia, foi realizado jejum alimentar de 20 horas e hídrico de 10 horas, mais a sondagem nasogástrica para obtermos o esvaziamento gástrico. Para o exame de Permeabilidade Gástrica à Sacarose, foi administrado 250g de sacarose por via nasogástrica, e foi coletado sangue no momento zero, 45 e 90min, para posterior análise por Cromatografia Líquida de Alta Eficiência. / The need of investigation of alternative methods to gastroscopy for the diagnosis and measurement of the degree of the Gastric Ulcer Syndrome in Horses has been found. In the face of this reality, this study aims to verify the efficiency of the Gastric Permeability to Sucrose tests and by the intensity in the Fecal Occult Blood in the measurement of the degree of stomach lesions compared to the diagnosis, golden standard, the gastroscopy. To the development of the research 16 horses were investigated between 4 and 6 years old, which worked in the guard squad, participated in equestrian practices and Polo games. The selection of this corpus was based in horses that are submitted to risk factors, such as: underdetermined rest time, low quality feeding, little hay offer, long transportation periods, among others. To the gastroscopy examination it was conducted 20 hours feeding fasts and 10 hours water fasts plus the nasogastric intubation to obtain gastric emptying. For the Gastric Permeability to Sucrose exam it was administered 250g of sucrose, via nasogastric tube, and was collected blood in the zero moment, 45 and 90 min., for later analysis by High Performance Liquid Chromatography through the method proposed by Hewetson et al., 2006. To the Fecal Occult Blood Test, we collected a fecal sample through the rectum to the analysis with the Meyer’s Reagent and we classified by crosses the intensity of occult blood. In the results we found out that the horses with the ulcer degree equal or higher than 3, the Gastric Permeability to Sucrose test proved itself device of reliable auxiliary diagnosis, yet the analysis of the intensity of the Fecal Occult Blood was not able to measure the degree of the stomach lesions. However, all the animals which presented gastric alterations had the presence of fecal occult blood. Para o exame de Sangue Oculto nas Fezes, coletamos uma amostra de fezes por via retal para análise com Reativo de Meyer, e classificamos por cruzes a intensidade de sangue oculto. Nos resultados, 43,75% não apresentaram quaisquer lesão estomacal, 31,25% apresentaram lesão grau 1 ou 2, e 25% apresentaram lesões grau 4. Encontramos que cavalos com o grau igual, ou maior a 3, de lesão gástrica, o teste de Permeabilidade Gástrica à Sacarose se demonstrou um meio de diagnóstico auxiliar confiável. Já a análise da intensidade de Sangue Oculto nas Fezes não foi capaz de mensurar a graduação de lesões estomacais. Porém todos os animais que apresentaram alterações gástricas tiveram a presença de sangue oculto nas fezes.

This study aims to highlight the consequences on outposts in Afghanistan in the context of COIN and ISAF during 2003-2012. Previous research in this area is more oriented towards the perspective of COIN at the strategic and operational level and not at the tactical and local level. For example, previous research has written about how important military presence and adaptation are, but not what consequences the company that is deployed to an area and conducts the COIN operation receives. The study was designed with Kilcullen’s theory about COIN and his 28 articles as a basis, and the study was conducted with in-depth interviews as the main empirical material, with officers who served in the Swedish Armed Forces, and the British Army during 2005-2012 in Afghanistan. The study finds that one consequence at one of the outposts was from the terrain, which was that the local infrastructure couldn’t support heavy military vehicles that came to the outpost, which resulted in the roads and irrigation ditches being destroyed by the vehicles' weight. The study also found interesting patterns amongst the informants that had the same consequences, which was that the roads leading towards the outposts were often very few, which led to a predictability for the enemy to use against the units stationed at the outpost. Another interesting find in this study is that there was a difference in how open each outpost was. For example, the British Army’s outposts were more open to civilians than the Swedish outposts, although the British Army had more fighting in their area than their Swedish counterpart.