Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Fear is an evolutionarily conserved response that can facilitate avoidance learning and promote survival, but excessive and persistent fear responses lead to development of phobias, generalized fear, and post-traumatic stress disorder. The primary goal of experiments in this dissertation is to determine the molecular mechanisms underlying formation of fear memories. The acquisition and consolidation of fear is dependent upon activation of N-methyl-D-aspartic acid receptors (NMDARs). Stimulation of NMDARs recruits neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) to the synaptic scaffolding protein, postsynaptic density protein 95 (PSD95), to produce nitric oxide (NO). Our laboratory has previously shown that disruption of the PSD95-nNOS interaction attenuates fear consolidation and impairs long-term potentiation of basolateral amygdala (BLA) neurons in a rodent model of auditory fear conditioning. However, the molecular mechanisms by which disrupting the PSD95-nNOS interaction attenuates fear consolidation are not well understood. Here, we used pharmacological and genetic approaches to study the effects underlying nNOS activity in the BLA during fear consolidation. During the early stage of fear memory consolidation (4-6 hours after fear acquisition), we observed increased α- Amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor (AMPAR)-mediated current and synaptosomal AMPAR GluR1 subunit trafficking in the BLA; while during the late stage (24h after fear acquisition), we detected a combination of enhanced AMPAR- and NMDAR-mediated currents, increased synaptosomal NMDAR NR2B subunit expression, and phosphorylation of synaptosomal AMPAR GluR1 and NMDAR NR2B subunits in the BLA. Importantly, we showed that pharmacological and genetic blockade of nNOS activity inhibits all of these glutamatergic synaptic plasticity changes in the BLA. Additionally, we discovered whole transcriptome changes in the BLA following fear consolidation. In the group with pharmacological inhibition of nNOS activity, however, gene expression levels resembled control-like levels. We also observed altered expression of multiple genes and identified the insulin-like growth factor system, D3/D4 dopamine receptor binding, and cGMP effects as key pathways underlying nNOSmediated consolidation of fear. Our results reveal nNOS-mediated, sequentially orchestrated synaptic plasticity changes facilitated by AMPA and NMDA receptors in the BLA during early and late stages of fear memory consolidation. We also report novel genetic targets and pathways in the BLA underlying NMDAR-PSD95-nNOS axis-mediated formation of fear memories.

The somatosensory corticothalamic (CT) circuit processes ascending sensory signals, and disruption to the balance of excitation and inhibition (E/I) within CT circuitry leads to absence seizures, sleep disorders, and attention deficits. E/I balance may be restored by independently modulating excitatory CT input to the ventral posteromedial (VPM) thalamus and inhibitory input to the VPM through the CT-thalamic reticular nucleus (nRT)-VPM pathway. This work revealed novel N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) nucleus-specific and frequency-dependent functional diversity in the somatosensory CT circuit. Specifically, these findings illustrate the different effects of NMDAR negative modulation in the nRT and the VPM, which offers a method to preferentially decrease high frequency excitatory CT input to the VPM while having no significant effect on nRT activity. These results demonstrate the potential of utilizing NMDAR selective modulators to decrease overall excitation within the somatosensory CT circuit. Further investigation is required to elucidate the precise mechanisms underlying this phenomenon, including where NMDARs are localized at CT synapses and the effect of positive NMDAR modulators on nRT and VPM activity. / Master of Science / The sensory gating mechanism helps our brain to select essential sensory information to process. Impairment of this sensory gating has been reported in epilepsy, schizophrenia, and autism. The somatosensory corticothalamic (CT) circuit oversea the sensory gating process by adjusting how much excitation and inhibition signals are integrated into the thalamus. Disruption of the balance of excitation and inhibition (E/I) within CT circuitry leads to the absence seizures, sleep disorders, and attention deficits. Our work revealed one of the glutamate receptors N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR), has nucleus-specific and frequency-dependent functional diversity in the somatosensory CT circuit. By targeting the different NMDAR subunits in the circuit, we were able to preferentially decrease high-frequency excitatory input to the thalamus while having no significant effect on inhibitory input. These results offer the potential to utilize NMDAR selective modulators to decrease overall excitation within the somatosensory CT circuit, which is useful to restore the disrupted E/I balance in the thalamus from a variety of neurological diseases. Further investigation is required to elucidate the precise mechanisms underlying this phenomenon.

As células T exercem papel crucial nas respostas imunes adaptativas e em doenças autoimunes, como a esclerose múltipla. O glutamato, neurotransmissor mais abundante no SNC, age por meio de duas famílias de receptores: metabotrópico e ionotrópico. As células T são alvo do glutamato durante a ativação e apresentação de antígenos, pois está presente nas sinapses imunológicas, porém, pouco se sabe a respeito de seu papel na função das células T. Nós estudamos o papel do NMDAR nas respostas mediadas por células T. In vitro, o uso do antagonista MK801 reduziu a linfoproliferação e a síntese de IFN-γ e IL-17A, bem com o NMDA reduziu a proliferação e produção de IFN-γ e IL-17A. In vivo, o MK801 reduziu a gravidade da EAE, resultado da menor infiltração de linfócitos Th1 e Th17 no SNC. Além disso, o MK801 reduziu a expressão de Rorc, Il17a, Stat4, Ccr4, Ccr6 e Ifna2 no SNC. Em suma, esses dados confirmam que o NMDAR exerce papel nas funções mediadas por células T, indicando que as células T são alvos do excesso do glutamato via NMDAR em doenças neuroinflamatórias. / T cells play a crucial role in adaptive immune responses and autoimmune diseases, such as multiple sclerosis. Glutamate is the most abundant neurotransmitter in the CNS, and it acts through two receptor families: metabotropic and ionotropic. T cells are target of glutamate during activation and antigen presentation, because glutamate is also present in the immunological synapses, however, little is known about its role on T cell functions. We investigated the role of NMDAR in immune-mediated T cell responses. In vitro, the use of the antagonist MK801 reduced T cell proliferation and cytokine production (IFN-γ e IL-17A), as well as NMDA reduced lymphocyte proliferation and IFN-γ e IL-17A production, in a dose dependent manner. In vivo, MK801 diminished severity of EAE, result of the minor Th1 and Th17 infiltration in the CNS. In addition, MK801 reduced Rorc, Il17a, Stat4, Ccr4, Ccr6 and Ifna2 expression in the CNS. In short, our data confirm that the NMDAR play a role in T cell-mediated functions, indicating that T cells are target of glutamate excess via NMDAR in neuroinflammatory diseases.

A neuroimunologia é o ramo da imunologia que estuda a relação entre sistema imune e o sistema nervoso. Muitos estudos têm demonstrado a capacidade direta de neurotransmissores em modular a resposta imune, assim como de citocinas em influenciar funções cognitivas. Neste contexto, o glutamato possui papel de destaque, por se tratar do neurotransmissor excitatório mais importante e mais abundante no sistema nervoso central dos mamíferos. Sua função é exercida através de dois tipos de receptores principais: i) os receptores ionotrópicos (iGluR) e ii) os receptores metabotrópicos (mGluR). A descoberta da expressão de receptores de glutamato em células do sistema imune tem despertado interesse científico, levantando questões acerca de sua expressão e função. No presente trabalho, avaliamos parâmetros como viabilidade celular, linfoproliferação e ativação de MAP quinase pelo receptor NMDAR esplenócitos totais e linfócitos cultivados in vitro. Nossos resultados demonstram que linfócitos em repouso e ativados apresentam diferentes perfis de expressão do receptor NMDAR. O uso do antagonista deste receptor, o MK801, foi capaz de reduzir a proliferação de linfócitos T CD4 e T CD8 estimulados com anti-CD3 em cultura de esplenócitos. Tal redução pode ser explicada por um aumento na taxa de morte celular, o que foi avaliado através de marcação com anexina-V, indicador de apoptose, ou 7-AAD, indicador de necrose. Para entendermos um pouco a respeito da sinalização do receptor NMDAR no sistema imune, avaliamos a fosforilação da MAP quinase ERK 1,2 em linfócitos T CD4 ativados na presença do agonista (NMDA) ou do antagonista (MK801) do receptor. Observamos um aumento na ativação desta quinase na presença de NMDA, o que é revertido na presença do MK801. Ao avaliar o papel do receptor NMDAR in vivo, verificamos uma redução significativa na gravidade da encefalomielite experimental auto-imune em animais tratados com MK801. Mais interessante, esta redução se correlaciona também com uma redução na fosforilação de ERK 1,2 em esplenócitos totais obtidos ao dia 7 pós-imunização. Em resumo, nossos dados sugerem que o receptor NMDA possui o papel de ativador de vias intracelulares importantes, como as da MAP quinase ERK 1,2; e que o seu bloqueio resulta em morte celular in vitro. Logo, isso indica a importância do glutamato como modulador da intensidade da resposta e viabilidade de linfócitos T CD4 e T CD8 in vitro e in vivo. Sendo assim, nossos resultados contribuem para um melhor entendimento dos fenômenos de imunoregulação, especialmente aqueles no campo da neuroimunologia ou neuroimunomodulação. / Neuroimmunology is a field within immunology which studies the relationship between the nervous system and the immune system. Several studies have demonstrated the direct ability of neurotransmitters in modulating the immune response, as for cytokines in influencing cognitive functions. In this context, glutamate stands out for being the most important and abundant neurotransmitter in the mammal central nervous system. Its role is exerted through two main types of receptor: i) ionotropic receptors (iGluR) and ii) metabotropic receptors (mGluR). The discovery of glutamate receptor expression in immune cells has led to scientific interest, raising issues concerning its expression and function. In the present study, we evaluated parameters such as cell viability, lymphoproliferation, and activation of the MAP quinase pathway by the NMDA receptor on total splenocytes and lymphocytes cultured in vitro. Our results demonstrate that naive and activated lymphocytes present different profiles of NMDA receptor expression. The use of MK801, an antagonist for this receptor, was able to reduce the T CD4 and T CD8 lymphocyte proliferation stimulated with anti-CD3 in splenocyte culture. Such reduction may be explained by the increase of the cellular death rate, evaluated by annexin-V staining, indicator of apoptosis or 7-AAD, indicator of necrosis. With the intent of understanding part of the NMDA receptor signaling in the immune system, we evaluated the ERK 1,2 MAP quinase phosphorylation in T CD4 lymphocytes activated in the presence of the agonist (NMDA) or the antagonist (MK801) of the receptor. We observed an increase in this quinase activation in the presence of NMDA, which is reversed by the MK801. When evaluating the role of the NMDA receptor in vivo, we verified a significant reduction in the degree of experimental auto-immune encephalomyelitis in animals treated with MK801. More interesting, this reduction also correlates to a reduction on the phosphorilation of ERK 1,2 in total splenocytes obtained at the seventh day post-immunization. In sum, our data suggest that the NMDA receptor has the role of activating important intracellular pathways, such as the MAP quinases ERK 1,2; and that its blockage results in cellular death in vitro. As so, this indicates the importance of glutamate as a modulator of the intensity of response and the viability of T CD4 e T CD8 lymphocytes in vitro e in vivo. Thus, our result contribute for a better understanding of the immunoregulation phenomena, especially those in the neuroimmunology ou neuroimmunomodulation field.

As células T exercem papel crucial nas respostas imunes adaptativas e em doenças autoimunes, como a esclerose múltipla. O glutamato, neurotransmissor mais abundante no SNC, age por meio de duas famílias de receptores: metabotrópico e ionotrópico. As células T são alvo do glutamato durante a ativação e apresentação de antígenos, pois está presente nas sinapses imunológicas, porém, pouco se sabe a respeito de seu papel na função das células T. Nós estudamos o papel do NMDAR nas respostas mediadas por células T. In vitro, o uso do antagonista MK801 reduziu a linfoproliferação e a síntese de IFN-γ e IL-17A, bem com o NMDA reduziu a proliferação e produção de IFN-γ e IL-17A. In vivo, o MK801 reduziu a gravidade da EAE, resultado da menor infiltração de linfócitos Th1 e Th17 no SNC. Além disso, o MK801 reduziu a expressão de Rorc, Il17a, Stat4, Ccr4, Ccr6 e Ifna2 no SNC. Em suma, esses dados confirmam que o NMDAR exerce papel nas funções mediadas por células T, indicando que as células T são alvos do excesso do glutamato via NMDAR em doenças neuroinflamatórias. / T cells play a crucial role in adaptive immune responses and autoimmune diseases, such as multiple sclerosis. Glutamate is the most abundant neurotransmitter in the CNS, and it acts through two receptor families: metabotropic and ionotropic. T cells are target of glutamate during activation and antigen presentation, because glutamate is also present in the immunological synapses, however, little is known about its role on T cell functions. We investigated the role of NMDAR in immune-mediated T cell responses. In vitro, the use of the antagonist MK801 reduced T cell proliferation and cytokine production (IFN-γ e IL-17A), as well as NMDA reduced lymphocyte proliferation and IFN-γ e IL-17A production, in a dose dependent manner. In vivo, MK801 diminished severity of EAE, result of the minor Th1 and Th17 infiltration in the CNS. In addition, MK801 reduced Rorc, Il17a, Stat4, Ccr4, Ccr6 and Ifna2 expression in the CNS. In short, our data confirm that the NMDAR play a role in T cell-mediated functions, indicating that T cells are target of glutamate excess via NMDAR in neuroinflammatory diseases.

A neuroimunologia é o ramo da imunologia que estuda a relação entre sistema imune e o sistema nervoso. Muitos estudos têm demonstrado a capacidade direta de neurotransmissores em modular a resposta imune, assim como de citocinas em influenciar funções cognitivas. Neste contexto, o glutamato possui papel de destaque, por se tratar do neurotransmissor excitatório mais importante e mais abundante no sistema nervoso central dos mamíferos. Sua função é exercida através de dois tipos de receptores principais: i) os receptores ionotrópicos (iGluR) e ii) os receptores metabotrópicos (mGluR). A descoberta da expressão de receptores de glutamato em células do sistema imune tem despertado interesse científico, levantando questões acerca de sua expressão e função. No presente trabalho, avaliamos parâmetros como viabilidade celular, linfoproliferação e ativação de MAP quinase pelo receptor NMDAR esplenócitos totais e linfócitos cultivados in vitro. Nossos resultados demonstram que linfócitos em repouso e ativados apresentam diferentes perfis de expressão do receptor NMDAR. O uso do antagonista deste receptor, o MK801, foi capaz de reduzir a proliferação de linfócitos T CD4 e T CD8 estimulados com anti-CD3 em cultura de esplenócitos. Tal redução pode ser explicada por um aumento na taxa de morte celular, o que foi avaliado através de marcação com anexina-V, indicador de apoptose, ou 7-AAD, indicador de necrose. Para entendermos um pouco a respeito da sinalização do receptor NMDAR no sistema imune, avaliamos a fosforilação da MAP quinase ERK 1,2 em linfócitos T CD4 ativados na presença do agonista (NMDA) ou do antagonista (MK801) do receptor. Observamos um aumento na ativação desta quinase na presença de NMDA, o que é revertido na presença do MK801. Ao avaliar o papel do receptor NMDAR in vivo, verificamos uma redução significativa na gravidade da encefalomielite experimental auto-imune em animais tratados com MK801. Mais interessante, esta redução se correlaciona também com uma redução na fosforilação de ERK 1,2 em esplenócitos totais obtidos ao dia 7 pós-imunização. Em resumo, nossos dados sugerem que o receptor NMDA possui o papel de ativador de vias intracelulares importantes, como as da MAP quinase ERK 1,2; e que o seu bloqueio resulta em morte celular in vitro. Logo, isso indica a importância do glutamato como modulador da intensidade da resposta e viabilidade de linfócitos T CD4 e T CD8 in vitro e in vivo. Sendo assim, nossos resultados contribuem para um melhor entendimento dos fenômenos de imunoregulação, especialmente aqueles no campo da neuroimunologia ou neuroimunomodulação. / Neuroimmunology is a field within immunology which studies the relationship between the nervous system and the immune system. Several studies have demonstrated the direct ability of neurotransmitters in modulating the immune response, as for cytokines in influencing cognitive functions. In this context, glutamate stands out for being the most important and abundant neurotransmitter in the mammal central nervous system. Its role is exerted through two main types of receptor: i) ionotropic receptors (iGluR) and ii) metabotropic receptors (mGluR). The discovery of glutamate receptor expression in immune cells has led to scientific interest, raising issues concerning its expression and function. In the present study, we evaluated parameters such as cell viability, lymphoproliferation, and activation of the MAP quinase pathway by the NMDA receptor on total splenocytes and lymphocytes cultured in vitro. Our results demonstrate that naive and activated lymphocytes present different profiles of NMDA receptor expression. The use of MK801, an antagonist for this receptor, was able to reduce the T CD4 and T CD8 lymphocyte proliferation stimulated with anti-CD3 in splenocyte culture. Such reduction may be explained by the increase of the cellular death rate, evaluated by annexin-V staining, indicator of apoptosis or 7-AAD, indicator of necrosis. With the intent of understanding part of the NMDA receptor signaling in the immune system, we evaluated the ERK 1,2 MAP quinase phosphorylation in T CD4 lymphocytes activated in the presence of the agonist (NMDA) or the antagonist (MK801) of the receptor. We observed an increase in this quinase activation in the presence of NMDA, which is reversed by the MK801. When evaluating the role of the NMDA receptor in vivo, we verified a significant reduction in the degree of experimental auto-immune encephalomyelitis in animals treated with MK801. More interesting, this reduction also correlates to a reduction on the phosphorilation of ERK 1,2 in total splenocytes obtained at the seventh day post-immunization. In sum, our data suggest that the NMDA receptor has the role of activating important intracellular pathways, such as the MAP quinases ERK 1,2; and that its blockage results in cellular death in vitro. As so, this indicates the importance of glutamate as a modulator of the intensity of response and the viability of T CD4 e T CD8 lymphocytes in vitro e in vivo. Thus, our result contribute for a better understanding of the immunoregulation phenomena, especially those in the neuroimmunology ou neuroimmunomodulation field.

The N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors are highly regulated ligand-gated ion channels, which are affected by many substrates. Overactivation of the NMDA receptor can lead to hyperexcitability and a number of neurotoxic effects and neurological diseases. Agmatine has been demonstrated to act allosterically as an inhibitory modulator at the polyamine recognition sites of the NMDA receptor complex. The present study synthesized and evaluated a library of agmatine analogs for their ability to displace tritiated MK-801 from NMDARs in P2 membrane preparations from rat brains at ligand concentrations of 1 mM and 50 uM. A full dose-response curve was generated for the most active compounds, in the presence and absence of a pathological level of spermidine (100 uM). A forty-five member subset of arylidenamino-guanidino compounds was synthesized and all were demonstrated to be NMDA receptor inhibitory modulators in the above assay. Three of these compounds generated biphasic curves, indicating activity at two binding sites: the postulated high-affinity agmatine binding site, and a low-affinity site (perhaps the channel itself). (4-Chlorobenzylidenamino)-guanidine hydrochloride demonstrated an IC50 of 3.6 uM at the former site and 124.5 uM at the latter. Several computer models were generated to direct further synthesis. Based on the structure-activity relationship of the arylidenamino-guanidino compounds, a pharmacophore model of the agmatine binding site of the NMDAR was proposed.

Alcohol dependence is a major public health concern. Despite the FDA’s approval of multiple anti-relapse drugs, relapse rates remain unacceptably high. Furthermore, cognitive deficits among chronic drinkers are evident and are suggested to contribute to relapse risk. Current evidence suggests that several critical features of alcoholism and alcohol-associated neurodegeneration are mechanistically linked to glutamatergic actions; specifically, they appear positively affected by glutamatergic inhibition, particularly inhibition via polyamine modulation of a subpopulation of n-methyl-d-aspartate receptors. The current project was designed to evaluate the performance of two putative polyamine modulators (JR-220 and CP-101,606) in a variety of screens designed to identify the potential to reduce withdrawal severity, neurotoxicity and relapse risk. Screens included a complex organotypic screen designed to assess neuroprotective potential (Experiment 1), a simple behavioral screen designed to assess withdrawal severity (Experiment 2) as well as several more complex behavioral screens designed to examine cue-conditioning during withdrawal (Experiment 3), relapse behavior (Experiment 4), stress-associated consumption (Experiment 5) and binge-like consumption (Experiment 6). An additional open field experiment (Experiment 7) was conducted in order to address interpretational issues concerning activity in Experiments 2-6. Finally, as a first step in moving beyond simple screening, we expanded our binge screen to adhere more closely to an established, validated model of binge consumption (Experiment 8). While some interpretational issues were noted, taken together, the results from these experiments provide strong evidence for both drugs as potential pharmacotherapies for alcoholism and further implicate polyamines and NR2B subunits as critical mechanisms in ETOH consumption and withdrawal.

NMDARs are indispensable for developmental plasticity in the mammalian brain, but their roles in vivo are difficult to ascertain as NMDAR-knockouts are lethal. To circumvent this problem, we utilized NR1-knockdown mice to examine plasticity at the calyx of Held-MNTB synapse in the auditory brainstem. Previous work shows NMDARs at this synapse are rapidly down-regulated following the onset of hearing (P12), leading to the hypothesis that transient NMDAR expression is indispensable for modulating functional and morphological remodelling during development. We tested this by performing electrophysiological recordings, fluorescence tracing in vitro, and auditory brainstem responses in vivo, and surprisingly found that reducing postsynaptic NMDARs appears to promote functional maturation via presynaptic mechanisms in the absence of morphological and acoustic transmission differences in the mature calyx. This suggests a novel role for NMDARs to function as an activity-dependent control for setting the pace of consolidation and maturation in the calyx of Held synapse.

NMDARs are indispensable for developmental plasticity in the mammalian brain, but their roles in vivo are difficult to ascertain as NMDAR-knockouts are lethal. To circumvent this problem, we utilized NR1-knockdown mice to examine plasticity at the calyx of Held-MNTB synapse in the auditory brainstem. Previous work shows NMDARs at this synapse are rapidly down-regulated following the onset of hearing (P12), leading to the hypothesis that transient NMDAR expression is indispensable for modulating functional and morphological remodelling during development. We tested this by performing electrophysiological recordings, fluorescence tracing in vitro, and auditory brainstem responses in vivo, and surprisingly found that reducing postsynaptic NMDARs appears to promote functional maturation via presynaptic mechanisms in the absence of morphological and acoustic transmission differences in the mature calyx. This suggests a novel role for NMDARs to function as an activity-dependent control for setting the pace of consolidation and maturation in the calyx of Held synapse.