One of the key concerns in spatial analysis and modelling is to study and analyse similarities or dissimilarities between places over geographical space. However, ”global“ spatial models may fail to identify spatial variations of relationships (spatial heterogeneity) by assuming spatial stationarity of relationships. In many real-life situations spatial variation in relationships possibly exists and the assumption of global stationarity might be highly unrealistic leading to ignorance of a large amount of spatial information. In contrast, local spatial models emphasise differences or dissimilarity over space and focus on identifying spatial variations in relationships. These models allow the parameters of models to vary locally and can provide more useful information on the processes generating the data in different parts of the study area. In this study, a framework for localising spatial interaction models, based on geographically weighted (GW) techniques, has been developed. This framework can help in detecting, visualising and analysing spatial heterogeneity in spatial interaction systems. In order to apply the GW concept to spatial interaction models, we investigate several approaches differing mainly in the way calibration points (flows) are defined and spatial separation (distance) between flows is calculated. As a result, a series of localised geographically weighted spatial interaction (GWSI) models are developed. Using custom-built algorithms and computer code, we apply the GWSI models to a journey-to-work dataset in Switzerland for validation and comparison with the related global models. The results of the model calibrations are visualised using a series of conventional and flow maps along with some matrix visualisations. The comparison of the results indicates that in most cases local GWSI models exhibit an improvement over the global models both in providing more useful local information and also in model performance and goodness-of-fit.

<p>The present work is concerned with projective prepositions, which express the relation between two objects by referring to a direction in three-dimensional space. The projective prepositions have been regarded as expressing simple schematic relations of a geometric nature. A theory of the apprehension of projective relations can account for their meanings when they express strictly geometric relations. However, many studies have shown that the appropriateness of the prepositions also depends on the functional relation between the objects and that a number of functional factors influence the comprehension of English prepositions. This experimental study investigates if the acceptability of the Swedish prepositions över, under, ovanför and nedanför are influenced by functional factors as well, and whether acceptability judgments about över and under are more sensitive to functional influences than judgments about ovanför and nedanför, as has been shown for the corresponding English prepositions over and under, and above and below, respectively. It also investigates how the shapes and the parts of the related objects influence their functional interaction, and how the acceptability of the prepositions is in consequence influenced by the shapes of the objects. It was found that the theory of apprehension can indeed account for the acceptability of the prepositions when the relation between the objects is strictly geometric. It was further found that acceptability judgments about them are influenced by functional factors in a similar manner to the corresponding English prepositions when the objects are functionally related, although judgments about under and nedanför are not differentially influenced by these factors. Furthermore, the shapes and the parts of both of the related objects influence acceptability judgments about the prepositions in predictable manners. An extension of the theory of apprehension is suggested which can account for the functional influences indicated in the present study.</p>

The present work is concerned with projective prepositions, which express the relation between two objects by referring to a direction in three-dimensional space. The projective prepositions have been regarded as expressing simple schematic relations of a geometric nature. A theory of the apprehension of projective relations can account for their meanings when they express strictly geometric relations. However, many studies have shown that the appropriateness of the prepositions also depends on the functional relation between the objects and that a number of functional factors influence the comprehension of English prepositions. This experimental study investigates if the acceptability of the Swedish prepositions över, under, ovanför and nedanför are influenced by functional factors as well, and whether acceptability judgments about över and under are more sensitive to functional influences than judgments about ovanför and nedanför, as has been shown for the corresponding English prepositions over and under, and above and below, respectively. It also investigates how the shapes and the parts of the related objects influence their functional interaction, and how the acceptability of the prepositions is in consequence influenced by the shapes of the objects. It was found that the theory of apprehension can indeed account for the acceptability of the prepositions when the relation between the objects is strictly geometric. It was further found that acceptability judgments about them are influenced by functional factors in a similar manner to the corresponding English prepositions when the objects are functionally related, although judgments about under and nedanför are not differentially influenced by these factors. Furthermore, the shapes and the parts of both of the related objects influence acceptability judgments about the prepositions in predictable manners. An extension of the theory of apprehension is suggested which can account for the functional influences indicated in the present study.

Les champs continus sont des types de représentations spatiales utilisées pour modéliser des phénomènes tels que la température, la pollution ou l’altitude. Ils sont définis selon une fonction de mapping f qui affecte une valeur du phénomène étudié à chaque localisation p du domaine d’étude. Par ailleurs, la représentation des champs continus à différentes échelles ou résolutions est souvent essentielle pour une analyse spatiale efficace. L’avantage des champs continus réside dans le niveau de détails généré par la continuité, ainsi que la qualité de l’analyse spatiale fournie par la multi-résolution. L’inconvénient de ce type de représentations dans l’analyse spatio-multidimensionnelle est le coût des performances d’analyse et de stockage. Par ailleurs, les entrepôts de données spatiaux et les systèmes OLAP spatiaux (EDS et SOLAP) sont des systèmes d’aide à la décision qui permettent l’analyse spatio-multidimensionnelle de grands volumes de données spatiales et non spatiales. L’analyse des champs continus dans l’architecture SOLAP représente un défi de recherche intéressant. Différents travaux se sont intéressés à l’intégration de ce type de représentations dans le système SOLAP. Cependant, celle-ci est toujours au stade embryonnaire. Cette thèse s’intéresse à l’intégration des champs continus incomplets représentés par une grille régulière de points dans l’analyse spatio-multidimensionnelle. Cette intégration dans le système SOLAP implique que l’analyse des champs continus doit supporter : (i) les opérateurs OLAP classiques, (ii) la vue continue des données spatiales, (iii) les opérateurs spatiaux (slice spatial) et (iv) l’interrogation des données à différentes résolutions prédéfinies. Dans cette thèse nous proposons différentes approches pour l’analyse des champs continus dans le SOLAP à différents niveaux de l’architecture relationnelle, de la modélisation conceptuelle à l’optimisation des performances de calcul. Nous proposons un modèle logique FISS qui permet d’optimiser les performances d’analyse à multi-résolution en se basant sur des méthodes d’interpolation. Puis, nous exposons une méthodologie basée sur la méthode d’échantillonnage du Clustering, qui permet d’optimiser les opérations d’agrégation des grilles régulières de points dans l’architecture SOLAP relationnelle en effectuant une estimation des résultats. / Continuous fields are types of spatial representations used to model phenomena such as temperature, pollution or altitude. They are defined according to a mapping function f that assigns a value of the studied phenomenon to each p location of the studied area. Moreover, the representation of continuous fields at different scales or resolutions is often essential for effective spatial analysis. The advantage of continuous fields is the level of details generated by the continuity of the spatial data, and the quality of the spatial analysis provided by the multi-resolution. The downside of this type of spatial representations in the multidimensionnal analysis is the high cost of analysis and storage performances. Moreover, spatial data warehouses and spatial OLAP systems (EDS and SOLAP) are decision support systems that enable multidimensional spatial analysis of large volumes of spatial and non-spatial data. The analysis of continuous fields in SOLAP architecture represents an interesting research challenge. Various studies have focused on the integration of such representations in SOLAP system. However, this integration still at an early stage. Thus, this thesis focuses on the integration of incomplete continuous fields represented by a regular grid of points in the spatio-multidimensional analysis. This integration in the SOLAP system involves that the analysis of continuous fields must support:(i) conventional OLAP operators, (ii) Continuous spatial data, (iii) spatial operators (spatial slice), and (iv) querying data at different predefined levels of resolutions. In this thesis we propose differents approaches for the analysis of continuous fields in SOLAP system at different levels of the relational architecture (from the conceptual modeling to the optimization of computing performance). We propose a logical model FISS to optimize the performances of the multi-resolution analysis, based on interpolation methods. Then, we present a new methodology based on the Clustering sampling method, to optimize aggregation operations on regular grids of points in the relational SOLAP architecture.

A subject didactic analysis of the development of the spatial knowledge of young children through a problem-centred approach to mathematics teaching and learning Researchers and educators are in agreement that it is very important that the spatial knowledge of the young child should be developed from the first years of school. In order to develop these skills the appropriate materials and activities need to be designed. This can only be realised through proper research methods that not only acknowledge the cognitive abilities of the young child, but also the social and cultural backgrounds of the children. This implies that due attention should be given to language, beliefs, cognitive skills, socio-economic background, schooling and teaching systems. The immediate worlds of the children should be used in developing the spatial skills of these children. The work that is described in this document is an effort to describe the complexity of such a research endeavour. The development of the spatial skills of young children were investigated through three different instructional/executional media namely language, drawing/writing and physical constructions. The three major variables that were described as influencing the spatial development in the different media were the task that was given to the children, the objects that the children worked with and the dimension and viewpoints of the objects and situations. It was clear from the research that in the development of the spatial skills of children, attention should. be given to: the real-world of the children, hands-on-experiences of the children, the cultural background, the language of instruction, the socio-economic background the classroom culture, the media of instruction and the cognitive skills of the children. / Proefskrif (PhD (Didaktiese Opvoedkunde))--PU vir CHO, 1997

A subject didactic analysis of the development of the spatial knowledge of young children through a problem-centred approach to mathematics teaching and learning Researchers and educators are in agreement that it is very important that the spatial knowledge of the young child should be developed from the first years of school. In order to develop these skills the appropriate materials and activities need to be designed. This can only be realised through proper research methods that not only acknowledge the cognitive abilities of the young child, but also the social and cultural backgrounds of the children. This implies that due attention should be given to language, beliefs, cognitive skills, socio-economic background, schooling and teaching systems. The immediate worlds of the children should be used in developing the spatial skills of these children. The work that is described in this document is an effort to describe the complexity of such a research endeavour. The development of the spatial skills of young children were investigated through three different instructional/executional media namely language, drawing/writing and physical constructions. The three major variables that were described as influencing the spatial development in the different media were the task that was given to the children, the objects that the children worked with and the dimension and viewpoints of the objects and situations. It was clear from the research that in the development of the spatial skills of children, attention should. be given to: the real-world of the children, hands-on-experiences of the children, the cultural background, the language of instruction, the socio-economic background the classroom culture, the media of instruction and the cognitive skills of the children. / Proefskrif (PhD (Didaktiese Opvoedkunde))--PU vir CHO, 1997

Landscape is about the relationship between people and place and in 2000 was defined by the European Landscape Commission (ELC) as "an area as perceived by people whose character is the result of natural and human actions and interactions”. In the 70s the reason for studying the landscape was because of the necessity of attributing a value to it. Nowadays the motivations behind managing, conserving and enhancing the landscape is because the landscape is the place where people belong to and, consciously or not, recognise themselves. In addition, people identify different landscapes on the basis of the particular combinations of the elements in the landscape. As a consequence a landscape can be distinguished from another on the basis of its character which, according to the Landscape Character Assessment (LCA) guidance for England and Scotland (C. Swanwick and Land Use Consultant, 2002), is defined as “a distinct, recognisable and consistent pattern of elements in the landscape that makes one landscape different from the other rather than better or worse”. This definition was the starting point of a PhD research project aimed at developing and implementing a methodology able to identify and quantify the character of the Scottish landscape through the application of GIS and statistics. The reason for doing this research was to provide the landscape architects and practitioners with a tool that could help them to define the landscape character types in a more consistent, objective, and scientifically robust way. One of the objectives of the research was to identify the spatial patterns formed by the landscape elements by taking into account the influence of the spatial location. The first law of geography, which states that "everything is related to everything else but near things are more related than distant ones" (W Tobler, 1970), was transposed in the assumption of the presence of spatial autocorrelation amongst the data which contributes to form spatial patterns within the data. Since landscape comprises of many elements, data were also multivariate, thus the analysis required a method of calculation able to deal simultaneously with multivariate and spatial autocorrelation issues. MULTISPATI-PCA, a spatially constrained Principal Component Analysis, was the statistical technique applied for the analysis of the data whose results showed that it was possible to detect the spatial structure of the data and that each spatial pattern corresponded to a distinct landscape. Despite their importance in forming the character of the landscape, aesthetic and perceptual aspects were not inlcuded in MULTISPATI-PCA analysis. It was preferred to test the technique only on data that were quantifiable in a more objective way. Perhaps taking into account the human perception of the landscape can be the starting point for future investigation.

In view of the augmenting spatial, socio-economic and ethnic segregation in Sweden over the last 30 years, the purpose of this study is to examine, illustrate and enhance the understanding of mundane segregation processes by studying how social actors collaboratively interact in Swedish online forums regarding in which areas it is “good” or “bad” to live in. The theoretical and methodological framework used to guide the collection, coding and analysis of empirical data is based on ethnomethodology and its applied methods conversation analysis, discursive psychology and membership categorization analysis. This implies a data-driven approach in which the analysis is solely based on the observable-and-reportable understandings of the interactants themselves. The results of the study show that the participants collaboratively orient to and assemble normative spatial categories by connecting these with spatial identities. Simply put, “good places” are treated as inherently linked to “good people”, and vice versa. Because of the way in which interactants treat these spatial-social categories as both inherently and normatively linked, the thesis introduces the concept normative-spatial-identities, in order to facilitate the investigation of how social actors collaboratively make sense of,  orient to and assemble normative spatial boundaries and in this fashion, contribute to enhancing the understanding of everyday inclusion-and-exclusion practices.

O crescimento acelerado da produção científica brasileira nos anos recentes foi acompanhado pela expansão das colaborações científicas domésticas. Neste estudo, olhamos mais atentamente esse assunto na tentativa pioneira de identificar padrões espaciais da produção e colaboração científica no Brasil, e avaliar o papel da proximidade geográfica na determinação das interações entre os pesquisadores brasileiros. Por meio de uma base única composta por mais de um milhão de pesquisadores registrados na Plataforma Lattes e de sete milhões de publicações científicas, coletamos e consolidamos informações sobre as colaborações científicas inter-regionais em termos de redes de coautorias entre 1.347 municípios brasileiros ao longo do período compreendido entre 1990 e 2010, o que permitiu uma abrangência de dados e perspectiva de análise inéditas na literatura. Os efeitos da distância geográfica nas redes de colaboração são mensurados para as diferentes áreas do conhecimento por meio da estimação de modelos de interações espaciais. Os principais resultados sugerem fortes evidências de um processo de desconcentração espacial da produção científica nos últimos anos associado à expansão das redes de colaboração e ao aumento da participação de autores das regiões cientificamente menos tradicionais, tais como Sul e Nordeste. Ademais, também encontramos evidência de que a distância ainda desempenha papel crucial na determinação da intensidade dos fluxos de conhecimento nas redes de colaboração científica no Brasil, embora a magnitude do efeito varie entre as redes das diferentes áreas do conhecimento. Por exemplo, verificamos que o distanciamento de 200 quilômetros entre dois pesquisadores implica na redução média de 22% ou 45% na probabilidade de haver colaboração entre eles, caso eles sejam de Linguística, Letras e Artes ou Ciências Exatas e da Terra, respectivamente. / Recent years have witnessed an accelerated growth of Brazilian scientific production that was accompanied by an expansion of domestic research collaboration. In this paper we look more closely at this issue in a pioneering attempt to identify spatial patterns of research production and collaboration in Brazil, and to measure the role of geographical proximity in determining interaction between Brazilian researchers. Using a unique database comprised of over one million researchers registered in the Brazilian Lattes Platform and seven million scientific publications, we collect and consolidate information on interregional research collaboration in terms of co-authorship networks among 1,347 Brazilian cities over the period between 1990 and 2010, which enabled a range of data and analysis perspective unprecedented in literature. The effects of geographical distance on research collaboration are measured for different knowledge areas under the estimation of spatial interaction models. The main results suggest strong evidence of spatial de-concentration of scientific production in the last years with expansion of research collaboration networks and an increased participation of authors in scientifically less traditional regions, such as South and Northeast. Moreover, we also find evidence that distance still plays a crucial role in determining the intensity of knowledge flows in scientific collaboration networks in Brazil, although the magnitude of such effects varies among networks of different knowledge areas. For instance, we found that the distancing of 200 kilometers between two researchers implies an average reduction of 22% or 45% on probability of collaboration among them, if they are of Linguistics, Letters and Arts or Exact and Earth Sciences, respectively.

In the last decades, the spatial organization of services has become a key issue in the urban planning literature. The basic reasons for this significance are the difficulties not only in understanding this complex and context-dependent organization, but also in developing planning interventions for this organization. Moreover, author believes that the existing theoretical frameworks have some inabilities in interpreting the spatial organization at the intra-metropolitan scale. Therefore, this study basically aims to redefine the spatial organization of service activities in Ankara with a relational perspective, and consequently, to develop an information-base for new types of planning interventions. For this purpose, first, the concepts and the fields of concepts that are integral to the spatial organization of services are examined. These concepts are the spatial patterns of concentration and dispersion and the spatial cohesiveness. Thereafter, the analytical framework that is required to study these concepts empirically, is introduced by stating the advantages of using descriptive mathematical techniques, indicators and methodological procedures in relational perspective. In the case study, the spatial organization of services in Ankara is redefined basically with reference to the spatial patterns of concentration and dispersion and the spatial cohesiveness of services. This redefinition displays the monocentric structure of Ankara and the differentiated parts within the spatial organization of services according to the activity compositions. Afterwards, this redefinition is utilized as the starting point for the reformulation of a new planning approach and new regulations directed towards the differentiated parts of the spatial organization of services. Finally, the methodological and contentual contributions, and also the possible further studies are presented as concluding remarks.