Paleoecology has been only in recent decades applied to Mesoamerica; this thesis provides new records of paleoenvironmental changes in Guatemala. Paleoecological reconstructions are developed based mainly on pollen in the Lachuá lowlands and Purulhá highlands of the Las Verapaces Region. For the first time, quantitative vegetation and climate analyses are developed, and plant indicator taxa from vegetation belts are identified. Changes in vegetation are explained partially by elevation and climatic parameters, topography, drainage divides, and biogeography. Pollen rain and indicator plant taxa from vegetation belts were linked through a first modern pollen rain analysis based on bryophyte polsters and surface sediments. The latter contain fewer forest-interior plant taxa in both locations, and in the highlands, they contain higher local pollen content than in the lowlands. These calibrations aided vegetation reconstructions based on fossil pollen in sediment records from the Lachuá and Purulhá regions. Reconstructions for the last ~2000 years before present (BP) were developed based on fossil pollen from cores P-4 on a floodplain in Purulhá, and L-3, a wetland in Lachuá. Core P-4 suggests that Mayan populations developed a system of agricultural terraces in a former paleolake-swamp environment, which was abandoned at the time of the Spanish Conquest (~400 BP). Core L-3 indicates the abandonment of Mayan “Forest Gardens” at the time of the early Postclassic. These gardens likely prevailed during the Classic period (~300-1100 yrs BP) at the outskirts of the ancient city of Salinas de los Nueve Cerros. Following abandonment, forest recovery took place for about 800 yrs. Cultural factors are found to be more important in determining vegetation dynamics in this region, since no clear evidence of climate forcing was found. The P-4 and L-3 cores provide likely evidence that Mayan populations were, contrary to other evidence, innovative landscape managers. Scenarios in the Las Verapaces Region have been drastically modified in recent times (e.g. after the European Conquest), as suggested by pollen evidence in the top of both P-4 and L-3 cores, possibly due mostly to modern large scale natural resources exploitation, which represent environmental threats greater than any seen in the last ca. 2000 years.

Paleoecology has been only in recent decades applied to Mesoamerica; this thesis provides new records of paleoenvironmental changes in Guatemala. Paleoecological reconstructions are developed based mainly on pollen in the Lachuá lowlands and Purulhá highlands of the Las Verapaces Region. For the first time, quantitative vegetation and climate analyses are developed, and plant indicator taxa from vegetation belts are identified. Changes in vegetation are explained partially by elevation and climatic parameters, topography, drainage divides, and biogeography. Pollen rain and indicator plant taxa from vegetation belts were linked through a first modern pollen rain analysis based on bryophyte polsters and surface sediments. The latter contain fewer forest-interior plant taxa in both locations, and in the highlands, they contain higher local pollen content than in the lowlands. These calibrations aided vegetation reconstructions based on fossil pollen in sediment records from the Lachuá and Purulhá regions. Reconstructions for the last ~2000 years before present (BP) were developed based on fossil pollen from cores P-4 on a floodplain in Purulhá, and L-3, a wetland in Lachuá. Core P-4 suggests that Mayan populations developed a system of agricultural terraces in a former paleolake-swamp environment, which was abandoned at the time of the Spanish Conquest (~400 BP). Core L-3 indicates the abandonment of Mayan “Forest Gardens” at the time of the early Postclassic. These gardens likely prevailed during the Classic period (~300-1100 yrs BP) at the outskirts of the ancient city of Salinas de los Nueve Cerros. Following abandonment, forest recovery took place for about 800 yrs. Cultural factors are found to be more important in determining vegetation dynamics in this region, since no clear evidence of climate forcing was found. The P-4 and L-3 cores provide likely evidence that Mayan populations were, contrary to other evidence, innovative landscape managers. Scenarios in the Las Verapaces Region have been drastically modified in recent times (e.g. after the European Conquest), as suggested by pollen evidence in the top of both P-4 and L-3 cores, possibly due mostly to modern large scale natural resources exploitation, which represent environmental threats greater than any seen in the last ca. 2000 years.

Submitted by Nadir Basilio (nadirsb@uninove.br) on 2017-04-18T15:46:52Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Rosangela Aparecida dos Reis Machado.pdf: 1732805 bytes, checksum: 773b278e19a996df05c8bce269c296eb (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-04-18T15:46:52Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Rosangela Aparecida dos Reis Machado.pdf: 1732805 bytes, checksum: 773b278e19a996df05c8bce269c296eb (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-12-20 / The present work aims at understanding the processes behind the adoption of the nine-year cycle for the Fundamental Education in the City of Sao Paulo. It takes into consideration the several possible mediations between an affirmative kind of politics (such as those proposed by international organisms), the creation of national politics on longer periods of mandatory Fundamental Education and the effectiveness of such politics on a micro level. In order to do so the theoretical basis to which we refer to is that on the cycle of politics as posed by Stephen Ball. Our object is Sao Paulo’s Public Education System, the role model for other Schools throughout the State of Sao Paulo due to the large area it serves. Documental and bibliographical analysis, as well as semi structured interviews and focal groups studies were selected as methodological procedures. Focal groups were made up by First and Second Grade teachers as well as School managers. The results were presented in four different chapters. The first chapter contemplates the context and the international documents that theoretically justify the need to extend mandatory education from eight to nine years. It also deals with the main actions taken by the Brazilian government as established by different accords signed by our country. The second chapter evolves around official Brazilian documents produced in order to legalize the nine-year fundamental education system. The third chapter briefly describes the History of the Secretary of Education of Sao Paulo. It also presents the legislation and other documents produced by the City about the nine-year cycle. The fourth chapter analyses the path towards the nine-year cycle in the City of Sao Paulo, taking into consideration the cycle of politics. The data collected during the research support Ball’s theory that the process of translating practices from politics is extremely complex as it involves interpreting several different subjects. Thus, the completion of the nine-year cycle in the Fundamental Educational level in the City of Sao Paulo still presents several challenges, such as consolidating a model for infancy pedagogy, building a new curriculum, solidifying its program in the educational unities that deal with the formation of teachers as well as the adequacy of spaces and time slots. / Este estudio tiene como objetivo comprender los procesos de implementación de la formación básica de nueve años en la Red de Educación Municipal de São Paulo. Para ello, fue necesario entender las posibles mediaciones entre una política afirmativa esbozada por las organizaciones internacionales, la formulación de una política de expansión nacional de la enseñanza primaria obligatoria y la implementación de esta política en el nivel micro. Definimos el lugar de la investigación en la educación municipal de Sao Paulo por ser un modelo educativo para los demás municipios del Estado de São Paulo y la amplia capacidad de servicio. El análisis se basa en el enfoque de ciclo de la política, propuesto por Stephen Ball. Las fuentes primarias utilizadas fueron los documentos producidos por diversas instituciones en este debate, una serie de entrevistas semiestructuradas y el grupo de enfoque llevó a cabo con los maestros en los primeros años de la escuela primaria y los gestores municipales. La encuesta, en su primera parte, asigna contextos y documentos internacionales que discursivamente justificaron la necesidad de ampliar la escuela primaria obligatoria de nueve años, las principales acciones llevadas a cabo por el gobierno brasileño guiada por los acuerdos internacionales en los que es signatario y analizados los documentos oficiales fueron producidos en Brasil, específicamente el Ministerio de educación (MEC), con el fin de justificar la aplicación de las políticas de nueve años de educación primaria. En la segunda parte, se describe la trayectoria histórica de la Secretaria de Educación de São Paulo, analizado la legislación y los documentos producidos por la ciudad de São Paulo sobre la escuela primaria de nueve años y el curso de la implementación de la educación primaria de São Paulo, fundamentada en el contexto enfoque de abordaje de ciclo de políticas. Los datos recogidos en la encuesta corroboran con la afirmación de Ball de que el proceso de traducir políticas en prácticas es extremadamente complejo, ya que implica la interpretación de los sujetos involucrados y en esta perspectiva, la implementación de educación básica de los nueve años en las escuelas públicas de enseñanza de Sao Paulo presenta numerosos desafíos, entre ellos para consolidar su modelo de la pedagogía de la niñez, construir un nuevo plan de estudios, materializar su programa en las unidades educativas con la formación del profesorado y la adaptación de espacios y tiempos. / O presente trabalho tem como objetivo compreender os processos de implementação do Ensino Fundamental de Nove anos na Rede Municipal de Ensino de São Paulo. Para tanto, foi necessário compreender as mediações possíveis entre uma política afirmativa delineada por organismos internacionais, a formulação de uma política nacional de ampliação da obrigatoriedade do Ensino Fundamental e a implementação dessa política em nível micro. Definimos o local da pesquisa na rede municipal de ensino de São Paulo por ela ser modelo educacional para os demais municípios do Estado de São Paulo e por sua ampla capacidade de atendimento. A análise feita teve como referência a abordagem do ciclo de políticas, proposta por Stephen Ball. As fontes primárias utilizadas foram os documentos produzidos por diversas instituições que participaram desse debate, um conjunto de entrevistas semiestruturadas e o grupo focal, realizado com professoras dos anos iniciais do Ensino Fundamental e gestores da rede municipal. A pesquisa, em sua primeira parte, mapeou os contextos e documentos internacionais que justificaram discursivamente a necessidade de ampliação da obrigatoriedade do Ensino Fundamental para nove anos, as principais ações realizadas pelo governo brasileiro orientadas pelos acordos internacionais do quais foi signatário e analisou os documentos oficiais que foram produzidos no Brasil, especificamente pelo MEC, com o intuito de justificar as políticas de implementação do ensino fundamental de nove anos. Na segunda parte, descreveu brevemente a trajetória histórica da Secretaria de Educação do Município de São Paulo, analisou a legislação e os documentos produzidos pelo município de São Paulo sobre o Ensino Fundamental de Nove anos e o percurso de implementação do ensino fundamental de nove anos no município de São Paulo, a partir do contexto da abordagem do ciclo de políticas. Os dados coletados na pesquisa corroboram com a afirmativa de Ball de que o processo de traduzir políticas em práticas é extremamente complexo pois envolve interpretações dos sujeitos envolvidos e nessa perspectiva, a implementação do Ensino Fundamental de Nove anos na Rede Municipal de Ensino de São Paulo apresenta inúmeros desafios, entre eles, consolidar seu modelo de pedagogia da infância, construir um novo currículo, concretizar seu programa nas unidades educacionais com formação docente e realizar a adequação de espaços e tempos.