From the climatological aspect, the meteorological observatory Milešovka is one of the most important stations at Czech Republic. When this master's thesis was writen, the 106 years long set of the daily mean air temperature was available. This dataset is not influenced by the urban heat island. Beside the older studies, the trend of the mean annual air temperature increased on 1,02řC/100 years. The highest value is in the spring, the lowest one in the winter. The value of mean diurnal temperature range is increasing. The duration of the frost period is decreasing, on the contrary, the lenght of the growing season is prolonging. 36 % of the absolute extremes of maximal daily temperature were detected in the period 1996-2010. On the other hand, the absolute extremes of minimal daily temperature are rare in this period. The sub-seasonal anomalies are three or more days long significant deviations from the smoothed annual progress of the air temperature. This anomalies of the air temperature has highest mean value of deviations and longest mean duration in winter. The relations between the sub-seasonal anomalies and the meteorological singularities are weak.

Ce mémoire de thèse est consacré à la mise en place d'un système opto-électronique générique basé sur une liaison toute optique bidirectionnelle de 10km. L'architecture étudiée et développée est dédiée à l'extension d'un observatoire câblé de fond de mer afin d'atteindre de nouvelles zones d'exploration. Les travaux de recherche rapportés dans ce manuscrit présentent la réalisation d'un démonstrateur, qui permet la récupération de données, issues d'un instrument connecté à un module opto-alimenté, via une seule fibre optique où transitent simultanément deux voies de données en bande C et la puissance optique d'alimentation (à 1480nm) égale à 33dBm permettant de récupérer 180mW électrique sur le module opto-alimenté.Le contexte de cette thèse de doctorat est présenté au travers d'un état de l'art sur les moyens utilisés pour l'observation des océans et sur les systèmes électroniques à faible consommation. Après un rappel des caractéristiques essentielles de l'architecture de la liaison optique préalablement établie, nous nous concentrons sur la structure opto-électronique qui a pour but d’assurer la communication entre l’observatoire et l’instrument déporté de l’extension. La définition du cahier des charges a abouti au choix du capteur (hydrophone), du débit des données (5Mbit/s) et du protocole de communication (SPI 3-fils) utilisé entre les deux modules opto-électroniques, chacun à une extrémité de la fibre optique. L'effort a été porté sur la conception d'un module opto-alimenté faible consommation (66mW) où s'intègre l'instrument. Tout au long de ce document, les choix technologiques retenus lors de la conception des deux modules opto-électroniques sont argumentés. Le banc d'essai du démonstrateur a permis de valider la conception de cette extension et d'évaluer la qualité de la transmission des données (BER inférieur à 10-6). Le fonctionnement d'un premier prototype destiné à être marinisé a été présenté au travers de la détection et de la transmission de signaux acoustiques générés en bassin d'essai. De manière à rendre le système encore plus générique, une solution alternative à base d'un FPGA, permettant l'utilisation d'une interface SPI 4-fils sans modifier la liaison optique a été présentée et validée. / This PhD thesis is devoted to the design of an opto-electrical and generic system which uses a 10km long all-optical and bidirectional link. The studied and developed system is dedicated to extend a current cabled seafloor observatory, in order to reach new exploration areas. The research work described in this thesis presents the development and the realization of a demonstrator. This later collects data from an instrument connected to its optically powered unit. The optical power supply (33dBm at 1480nm), which provides up to 180mW electrical for the optically powered unit, and the optical data in C band, are transmitted simultaneously through the same single optical fiber.The thesis context is first presented through an overview of ocean observation systems and low consumption electronic devices. After a brief review on the main characteristics of the optical architecture, we focused on the opto-electrical structure which permits the communication between the observatory and the remote instrument. The desired requirements have led us to the choice of the sensor (hydrophone), the data bit rate (5Mbit/s) and the communication protocol (SPI 3-Wire) used between both opto-electrical units, each one located at the both ends of the optical link. A special attention was devoted to the conception of the optically powered which must be low power consumption (66mW). All along this document, technical choices involved in the realization of both opto-electrical units are presented. We could evaluate the performance of the data transmission (BER less than 10-6) by using a demonstrator's test bench. Then, a first prototype designed for the ocean environment was presented through experimental measurements. Those tests were conducted in a test pool and have consisted in the detection of acoustic signals. In order to increase the range of compatible instruments, an alternative solution based on a FPGA was described and approved. This new design allows the SPI 4-Wire to be employed without any change of the current optical architecture.

O objetivo desta dissertação é a busca de anisotropias em grandes escalas angulares no fluxo de raios cósmicos acima de 4 × 10^{18} eV e o confronto dos resultados obtidos com as previsões dos principais modelos astrofísicos na região de ultra altas energias. Com esse propósito foram analisados os dados de chuveiros atmosféricos extensos registrados pelo Observatório Pierre Auger no período de 01 de janeiro de 2004 até 31 de agosto de 2016, compreendendo um total de 108 480 eventos detetados com ângulos zenitais entre 0 e 80 graus acima de 4 × 10^{18} eV. Efeitos sistemáticos locais como a influência da variação das condições atmosféricas e a influência do campo geomagnético nos estimadores de energia das cascatas atmosféricas foram corrigidos cuidadosamente para evitar a introdução de sinais espúrios de anisotropias na análise. Especial ênfase foi dedicada à construção de um mapa bidimensional na esfera celeste com os valores da exposição para cada direção no céu, calculado com uma precisão de 1% a partir da informação da área de coleção efetiva no Observatório Pierre Auger a cada minuto. Da mesma forma, a distribuição das direções de chegada dos eventos foi registrada em mapas bidimensionais na esfera celeste que, após corrigidos pela exposição, são transformados nos mapas de fluxo usados na análise quantitativa para a busca de anisotropias. Neste trabalho procurou-se padrões dipolares de anisotropias, os quais foram quantificados usando o método de expansão multipolar em harmônicos esféricos. Diferentemente do método bidimensional de Rayleigh usado na maioria dos estudos deste tipo, o método aqui utilizado fornece de maneira direta as três componentes cartesianas do dipolo, por meio das quais a reconstrução da amplitude e orientação espacial do dipolo é feita de maneira mais natural. A busca de anisotropias foi realizada em dois intervalos de energia independentes, assim foram analisados por separado os eventos com energias entre 4 × 10^{18} e 8 × 10^{18} eV e de energias maiores que 8 × 10^{18} eV. No primeiro intervalo não foi encontrado nenhum sinal de anisotropia estatisticamente significativo. No segundo intervalo foi encontrada uma anisotropia dipolar de amplitude d = (7.9 ± 1.1)% com coordenadas equatoriais (_d , _d ) = (103 ± 10 , 38 ± 7 ) graus e uma probabilidade de ocorrência ao acaso de 6.90 × 10^{8} , correspondendo a uma significância estatística acima do limiar de descoberta de 5 . Tal amplitude e direção são melhor explicadas assumindo-se uma origem extragaláctica para os raios cósmicos com energias acima de 8 × 10^{18} eV. / The aim of this dissertation is the search for large scale anisotropies in the cosmic ray flux above 4 × 10^{18} eV and the comparison of the results with the predictions of the main astrophysical models in the ultra high energy region. With this purpose we analyzed the data of extensive air showers detected by the Pierre Auger Observatory in the period of 1st January 2004 to 31st August 2016 comprising a total of 108 480 events with zenith angles between 0 and 80 degrees above the threshold of 4 × 10^{18} eV. Local systematic effects such as the influence of the variation of the atmospheric conditions and the effect of the geomagnetic field in the energy estimators were properly corrected to avoid the introduction of spurious anisotropy signals in the analysis. Special emphasis was placed on the construction of a two-dimensional map on the celestial sphere with the exposure values for each direction on the sky, calculated with an accuracy of 1% from the information of the effective collection area of the observatory at every minute. Likewise, the arrival directions distribution of the events was recorded in two-dimensional maps on the celestial sphere that after correcting by the exposure were transformed into the flux maps to be used in the quantitative analysis for the anisotropies search. In this work we search for dipolar-like anisotropy patterns, which were quantified by performing a spherical harmonics decomposition of the cosmic ray flux map. Unlike the traditional two-dimensional Rayleigh method used in the majority of the studies of this kind, the method used here directly provides the three cartesian components of the dipole, allowing the reconstruction of its amplitude and orientation in a more natural way. The anisotropy search was made in two independent energy bins, so the distributions of the events with energies between 4 × 10^{18} and 8 × 10^{18} eV and those with energies greater than 8 × 10^{18} eV were analyzed separately. In the first energy bin no statistically significant departure from isotropy was found. In the second energy bin a dipole anisotropy of amplitude d = (7.9 ± 1.1)% with equatorial coordinates (_d , _d ) = (103 ± 10 , 38 ± 7 ) degrees and a chance probability of 6.90 × 10^{8} was found, corresponding to a statistical significance above the discovery threshold of 5 . Such amplitude and direction for the reconstructed dipole is better explained if an extragalactic origin is assumed for the bulk of cosmic rays above 8 × 10^{18} eV.

Le Mont Saint-Michel est l'objet d'une opération pilote d'envergure nationale visant à rétablir son caractère maritime et améliorer ses conditions d'approche et de découverte. Ce projet entraîne une modification profonde des conditions de visite et d'accès au site. Le site accueille chaque année près de 2.5 millions de visiteurs et, dans un souci de gestion durable de cette fréquentation, le gestionnaire est demandeur d'outils d'aide à la décision pour adapter et anticiper ses mesures de gestion. Dans ce contexte, deux outils complémentaires basés sur des démarches d'observation et de modélisation ont été développées. Ils apportent un éclairage sur le fonctionnement du système de fréquentation et sur sa réaction en réponse aux mesures de gestion envisagées. Un observatoire identifie et suit dans le temps les principales composantes de ce système. Un modèle dynamique s'appuie sur cette base de données et met en relation certains éléments de ce système. Basé sur la simulation multi-agents, ce dernier a été développé à l'échelle du site pour les conditions avant et après travaux. Il simule les itinéraires et pratiques des visiteurs et identifient les secteurs et périodes susceptibles de devenir problématiques pour le visiteur et le gestionnaire. Celui-ci peut alors anticiper et prévenir certains dysfonctionnements et adapter certains protocoles de suivi de l'observatoire. L'association des deux outils autorise la construction de scénarii vraisemblables et cohérents avec les interrogations des gestionnaires et apporte des éléments de réflexion sur l'évolution de la fréquentation intra-site dans un contexte de changement majeur des conditions de visite. / The Mont Saint-Michel have been part of large-scale pilot project that aims to restore the maritime setting of the site and improve visitor access and experience. This project has led to a major change in how the site can be accessed and visited. Mont Saint-Michel hosts nearly 2.5 million visitors every year. To better manage and control tourist flows in a sustainable manner, the local tourism association is need of decision-making tools.To address this issue, two complmentary tools based on observation and modelling approaches were devlopped. They were designed to shd light on the patterns of tourism flows and also on how the tourism system responds to the proposed management planning. an observatory identifies and monitors the main elements of this tourism system. A dynamic model based on the data generated by the Mont Saint-Michel before and after restoration of the visitor access. It simulated visitor itiniraries and practices and pinpointed the areas and the periods likely to be probematical for visitors and tourism managers. Tourism managers can thus not only use this toool to anticipate and avoid difficulties and to adjust some of the obervatory's monitoring protocols. The combination of both field-based tools will be useful for buiding realistic scenarios that can address the ever-changingissues that tourism managers confront. In addition, the application of these tools offers a new perspective on tourist flows at Mont Saint-Michel, particulary in light of the recent, major changes in visitor access and experience.

L'étalonnage des instruments dédiés à l'observation de la Terre et du Cosmos est l'une des clefs d'un retour scientifique maximal de ces missions. <br> La première partie de cette thèse est consacrée à la préparation des outils et méthodes d'étalonnage du spectromètre submillimétrique HIFI embarqué à bord du satellite Herschel en 2007. Le premier aspect traite de l'étalonnage des données et de leur conversion en une échelle scientifique. Nous recensons dans un premier temps les besoins de l'étalonnage en vol et identifions les étalons primaires et secondaires. Nous établissons alors une liste de candidats potentiels, complétée par une campagne d'observations préparatoires au sol. Un schéma d'étalonnage interne fondé sur deux charges embarquées est étudié et nous présentons un premier bilan d'erreur. Nous montrons que cette approche n'est a priori pas adaptée aux conditions spatiales et donnons les premiers éléments d'une technique plus adéquate. Le second aspect s'intéresse à l'étalonnage de l'instrument proprement dit. Nous analysons les besoins de la campagne de mesures en laboratoire du premier prototype de HIFI, et proposons un système original afin d'étalonner divers paramètres au sol. Nous montrons également l'importance d'une modélisation instrumentale et présentons une description des systèmes d'ondes stationnaires susceptibles d'affecter les données de HIFI. <br> La seconde partie de cette thèse est dédiée à l'étude de coeurs denses galactiques détectés dans l'infrarouge moyen par le satellite ISO. Nous montrons que ces objets appartiennent à une population nouvelle de condensations massives (M > 1000 Masses solaires) et froides (8 < T < 25 K) associées à des nuages moléculaires géants. L'analyse indique des extinctions dans le visible supérieures à 50, et suggère que des phénomènes de collage sur les grain affectent la plupart des espèces moléculaires. Nous montrons que ces objets sont probablement fragementés, et qu'ils sont susceptibles, ou ont déjà initié la formation d'étoiles massives en leur sein.

Hydrocarbon deposits in the form of petroleum, natural gas, and natural gas hydrates occur offshore worldwide. Electromagnetic methods that measure the electrical resistivity of sediments can be used to map, assess, and monitor these resistive targets. In particular, quantitative assessment of hydrate content in marine deposits, which form within the upper few hundred meters of seafloor, is greatly facilitated by complementing conventional seismic methods with EM data. The North-East Pacific Time-series Undersea Network Experiment (NEPTUNE) is an underwater marine observatory that provides power and network connection to a host of instruments installed on the seafloor on the Cascadia Margin offshore Vancouver Island. The observatory’s aim is to provide a platform for very long-term studies in which access to data is available on a continuous basis. For this thesis project, a transient dipole-dipole time-domain EM system was constructed and deployed on the NEPTUNE network with the goal of long-term monitoring of a well-studied hydrate deposit in the area. The instrument includes a source transmitter of electrical current and individual receivers to measure small electric field variations. The instrument is powered by the NEPTUNE observatory and data can be collected remotely by connecting to the instrument through the web. Data collected so far from the instrument are consistent with a resistive structure. The best fitting model from 1D inversion is a 36 ± 3 m thick layer of 5.3 ± 0.3 Ωm resistivity, overlaying a less resistive 0.7 ± 0.1 Ωm halfspace. Average hydrate concentration, deduced with the aid of ODP-889 well-log derived Archie’s parameters, is approximately 72% of pore space in the resistive layer, consistent with the very high concentration of gas hydrates (~80%) recovered from seafloor cores. The weekly collection of data from the instrument shows that the resistive structure has changed little since monitoring began in October of 2010.

Hydrocarbon deposits in the form of petroleum, natural gas, and natural gas hydrates occur offshore worldwide. Electromagnetic methods that measure the electrical resistivity of sediments can be used to map, assess, and monitor these resistive targets. In particular, quantitative assessment of hydrate content in marine deposits, which form within the upper few hundred meters of seafloor, is greatly facilitated by complementing conventional seismic methods with EM data. The North-East Pacific Time-series Undersea Network Experiment (NEPTUNE) is an underwater marine observatory that provides power and network connection to a host of instruments installed on the seafloor on the Cascadia Margin offshore Vancouver Island. The observatory’s aim is to provide a platform for very long-term studies in which access to data is available on a continuous basis. For this thesis project, a transient dipole-dipole time-domain EM system was constructed and deployed on the NEPTUNE network with the goal of long-term monitoring of a well-studied hydrate deposit in the area. The instrument includes a source transmitter of electrical current and individual receivers to measure small electric field variations. The instrument is powered by the NEPTUNE observatory and data can be collected remotely by connecting to the instrument through the web. Data collected so far from the instrument are consistent with a resistive structure. The best fitting model from 1D inversion is a 36 ± 3 m thick layer of 5.3 ± 0.3 Ωm resistivity, overlaying a less resistive 0.7 ± 0.1 Ωm halfspace. Average hydrate concentration, deduced with the aid of ODP-889 well-log derived Archie’s parameters, is approximately 72% of pore space in the resistive layer, consistent with the very high concentration of gas hydrates (~80%) recovered from seafloor cores. The weekly collection of data from the instrument shows that the resistive structure has changed little since monitoring began in October of 2010.

Spot core from the San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth (SAFOD) borehole provides the opportunity to characterize and quantify damage and mineral alteration of siliciclastics within an active, large-displacement plate-boundary fault zone. Deformed arkosic, coarse-grained, pebbly sandstone, and fine-grained sandstone and siltstone retrieved from 2.55 km depth represent the western damaged zone of the San Andreas Fault, approximately 130 m west of the Southwest Deforming Zone (SDZ). The sandstone is cut by numerous subsidiary faults that display extensive evidence of repeating episodes of compaction, shear, dilation, and cementation. The subsidiary faults are grouped into three size classes: 1) small faults, 1 to 2 mm thick, that record an early stage of fault development, 2) intermediate-size faults, 2 to 3 mm thick, that show cataclastic grain size reduction and flow, extensive cementation, and alteration of host particles, and 3) large subsidiary faults that have cemented cataclastic zones up to 10 mm thick. The cataclasites contain fractured host-rock particles of quartz, oligoclase, and orthoclase, in addition to albite and laumontite produced by syn-deformation alteration reactions. Five structural units are distinguished in the subsidiary fault zones: fractured sandstones, brecciated sandstones, microbreccias, microbreccias within distinct shear zones, and principal slip surfaces. We have quantified the particle size distributions and the particle shape of the host rock mineral phases and the volume fraction of the alteration products for these representative structural units. Shape characteristics vary as a function of shear strain and grain size, with smooth, more circular particles evolving as a result of increasing shear strain. Overall, the particle sizes are consistent with a power law distribution over the particle size range investigated (0.3 µm < d < 400 µm). The exponent (fractal dimension, D) is found to increase with shear strain and volume fraction of laumontite. This overall increase in D and evolution of shape with increasing shear strain reflects a general transition from constrained comminution, active at low shear strains to abrasion processes that dominate at high shear strains.

In Saanich Inlet, a fjord located in southern Vancouver Island, British Columbia, dense aggregations of euphausiids exhibit diel vertical migration behavior and their capability of generating turbulence has been suggested. Despite decades of research on diel vertical migration of zooplankton, its variability has not been well studied. In addition, the physical oceanographic environment in Saanich Inlet has not been thoroughly quantified, which raises the possibility of previously observed turbulent bursts of O(10^-5 – 10^-4 W kg^-1) having physical (rather than biological) origin. This work characterizes variability of diel vertical migration behavior using a moored 200-kHz echosounder, complemented by plankton sampling. Physical properties such as barotropic, baroclinic and turbulent signals are described, and the relationship between turbulence and internal waves/scattering layer examined. A two-year high-resolution biacoustic time-series provided by the Victoria Experimental Network Under the Sea (VENUS) cabled observatory allowed quantification of the seasonal variability in migration timing of euphausiids. During spring – fall, early dusk ascent and late dawn descent relative to civil twilight occur. During winter, late dusk ascent and early dawn descent occur. Factors regulating the seasonal changes in migration timing are light availability at the daytime depth of the scattering layers, and size-dependent visual predation risk of euphausiids. Instead of the traditional view of diel vertical migration timing correlated solely with civil twilight, euphausiids also adapt their migration timing to accommodate changes in environmental cues as well as their growth. The pre-spawning period (February – April) is an exception to this seasonal pattern, likely due to the higher energy demands for reproduction. Turbulence and internal waves in Saanich Inlet are characterized based on a one-month mooring deployment. Average dissipation rates are nearly an order of magnitude larger than previously reported values and higher dissipation rates of O(10^-7 – 10^-6 W kg^-1) are occasionally observed. A weak correlation is observed between turbulent dissipation rates and baroclinic velocity/shear. To examine the possibility of biological generation of turbulence, an echosounder at the VENUS cabled observatory is used to simultaneously measure the intensity of the euphausiid scattering layer and its vertical position. Turbulent bursts of the sort previously reported are not observed, and no relation between diel vertical migration and turbulent dissipation rates is found. Physical forcing at the main channel remains as a possible cause of the turbulent bursts. / Graduate / 0416 / 0415

Using the Chandra X-ray Observatory, Martini et al. (2006) found that the AGN fraction of galaxy clusters was five times higher than previous optical studies suggested. Using visual observations only, Dressler et al. (1985) estimated the AGN fraction of field galaxies to be 5%, while that of clusters was thought to be 1%. To understand the role that the environment plays in AGN fueling, the author studied a variety of environments, ranging from the field to groups to clusters. Will the AGN fraction of groups also be higher than that of the field? The author demonstrates how the AGN fraction of groups compares to that of clusters. In the following sections, the author describes the mechanics of X-ray astronomy, the group environment, and the characteristics of active galactic nuclei. The author briefly describes the possible mechanisms for AGN fueling.