Maintaining desired numbers of wildlife species requires an understanding of species-specific population dynamics. For ungulate species such as the white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), understanding the neonatal survival rate of a population and factors that influence that survival rate, may be two of the most important factors to successful deer management. We examined neonatal survival in an eastern Kentucky population of deer living in relatively low densities (/ km2), with adequate habitat and supposedly poor population growth. Neonates (102) were captured in the summer birth periods of 2014 - 2016 and radio-monitored until the beginning of the fall archery deer season. We found moderate-to-low survival estimates to four months of 43% (95% CI: 29 – 57%) that are consistent with many areas in the Midwest and southeastern United States. Predation, including suspected predation events, from bobcats (Lynx rufus) and coyotes (Canis latrans) accounted for 80% of all neonate mortalities. A thorough examination of the survival and mortality in the neonate component of this population is discussed herein.

White-tailed deer are one of the most sought after game species in Kentucky. While much of the Commonwealth boasts high deer populations, those in southeast Kentucky are viewed as relatively low compared to other regions, even after a decade of restrictive doe harvest and multiple years of population supplementation via translocation. We studied survival and cause specific mortality of a local population of deer near the Redbird District of the Daniel Boone National Forest in Clay and Leslie County, Kentucky from January 2014 - January 2017. We estimated female annual survival at 0.89 (CI: 0.88-0.87), with an overall 3-year survival of 0.69 (CI: 0.56-0.84). Deer vehicle collisions and poaching were the most frequent mortality causes and represented 13 of 18 (72%) of mortalities. Managers should consider all forms of mortality and their relative importance in wildlife population dynamics when making harvest decisions. We recommend longer-term studies similar to ours to better understand population trends and inform regional management of this species in Kentucky.

The Key deer (Odocoileus virginianus clavium) population has increased from less than 80 individuals in the 1950s to approximately 700 by 2000. Over two-thirds of the Key deer population resides on two islands out of a potential 26 islands within their range. The skewed distribution resulted in high deer densities on Big Pine, No Name, and Big Munson keys. The objective of the study was to evaluate the effects of Key deer herbivory in mangrove, buttonwood, hammock and pineland habitats between islands with low, medium, and high densities of deer. Host-plant choice trials were conducted to determine Key deer selection among plant species. Subsequent analyses on vegetation were then compared by deer preference categories: preferred and nonpreferred plant species. Vegetation quadrats, deer exclosures,nursery plant species, and baseline vegetation data were used to examine the effects of Key deer browsing on plant communities. For most analyses, browsing impacts were not evident for the entire plant assemblage (e.g. all plant species combined, diversity, species richness etc.), but were noticeable when plant species were dichotomized by deer preference. The strongest negative impacts of browsing were seen for highly preferred plant species, such as Bursera simaruba, Erithalis fruticosa, Bumelia celastrina, Rhizophora mangle, Jacquinia keyensis, and Guapira discolor, which all had very low densities on high deer density islands. Some nonpreferred species exhibited a positive relationship with high deer densities, such as Eugenia spp., Piscidia piscipula, and Coccoloba diversifolia among others. Urbanization also influenced Key deer herbivory in that Key deer tend to aggregate in urban environments, which increased browsing pressure in adjacent hammock habitats. Fire played an important role by increasing the percent cover of preferred herbaceous species in pinelands especially in deer exclosure plots. Fire and Key deer browsing also interacted by decreasing hardwood species invasion into pineland habitat. Key deer have a strong influence on plant community structure on islands with large deer herds. Management efforts, such as contraception, public education on the ramifications of feeding wildlife, and sustainable/suspended development of lands in the National Key Deer Refuge is warranted to benefit Key deer and to deter increased browsing pressure.

The purpose of my research was to test the hypothesis that the availability of fresh, naturally occurring water may limit the distribution of Florida Key Deer (Odocoileus virginianus clavium). More specifically, I was trying to determine if there was enough fresh, drinkable water for the deer on each of the islands. To test the hypothesis, I developed a model that simulated likely seasonal fluctuations in fresh water availability in naturally occurring waterholes within the Key Deer range. I estimated 60 scenarios representing different weather (precipitation and evaporation) conditions, different literature estimates of the daily water requirement of Key Deer and also different upper salinity thresholds for drinkable water. Results showed that 1) even under the most favorable conditions in terms of fresh water availability, there was not enough fresh, drinkable water for the deer on any of the islands. Results also showed that 2) high salinity was important in determining the fresh water availability to the deer, in addition to the lack of water volume. Although these results suggest a prolonged seasonal shortage of fresh, naturally occurring water on each of the islands, deer were present on all of the islands during all seasons. One possible reason for the lack of correlation between Key Deer distribution and naturally occurring waterholes is the availability of man-made water sources (e.g. birdbaths, swimming pools).

Chronic wasting disease (CWD) was detected in Saskatchewan wild deer populations in 2000 which prompted disease management actions consisting of population reduction. Little is known about population structure, health status, interactions or movement patterns of deer in Saskatchewan and these factors are important in designing a management program for CWD. As part of an ongoing study on deer movement patterns of wild deer in southern Saskatchewan, a survey was conducted to: 1) determine prevalence of CWD and selected infectious agents in mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), and 2) identify infectious agents which could be used as a surrogate measure of the effectiveness of the adopted CWD management strategies. Tonsil biopsies, feces and blood were collected from 254 mule deer and 43 white-tailed deer during winters of 2006, 2007 and 2008. Immunohistochemical staining of tonsil biopsies for CWD revealed a prevalence of 2.4% (6/249) in mule deer and 0% (0/43) in white-tailed deer. Parasitological investigation of 253 fecal samples from mule deer identified eggs of nematodes in the superfamily Trichostrongyloidea (29.2%); and parasitic stages of the following genera: Nematodirus (7.1%), Skrjabinema (14.3%), Trichuris (0.8%), Moniezia (16.2%), Thysanosoma (12.2%), Orthostrongylus (35.2%), Eimeria (13.4%) and Giardia (0%, 0/137). A similar investigation of 42 white-tailed deer fecal samples identified parasitic stages of nematodes in the super family Trichostrongyloidea (4.8%) and in genera of Orthostrongylus (2.4%), Moniezia (2.4%) and Eimeria (2.4%). Dorsal-spined larvae were detected in 2.4% of the white-tailed deer fecal samples. In serum samples from 253 mule deer, antibodies (Ab) were detected against bovine herpesvirus1 (BoHV-1) (34.8%), parainfluenza-3 (PI-3) (56.5%), bovine virus diarrhoea virus (BVDV-1) (30.8%) and Neospora caninum (15.4%, 36/245). In serum samples from 40 white-tailed deer, Ab to BoHV-1(32.5%), PI-3 (35%), BVD-1 (12.5%) and Neospora caninum (20.5%, 8/39) was detected. Based on relative host specificity, moderate prevalence and horizontal routes of transmission, herpesvirus, parainfluenza 3, Eimeria and Skrjabinema were identified as infectious agents which could potentially be used to evaluate the effectiveness of disease management strategies, which may in turn predict the response of CWD to these same strategies. Using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) a herpesvirus was detected, in 42.1% (40/95) of retropharyngeal lymph nodes from hunter-submitted mule deer and white-tailed deer heads from Saskatchewan in 2007. DNA sequences of the partial DNA polymerase gene from this virus were 98 - 100% identical to mule deer lymphotropic herpesvirus (mule deer-LHV). A 3.6 kb contiguous sequence of mule deer-LHV genome was generated by genome walking (GenBank Accession number: HM014314). Use of a mule deer-LHV-specific PCR on buffy coat samples collected during winters of 2007 and 2008, detected mule deer-LHV in 42.1% (67/158) of mule deer and 33.3% (8/24) of white-tailed deer. Very little DNA sequence diversity in the partial sequences of glycoprotein B (gB) gene and the intergenic spacer regions between DPOL and gB gene of mule deer-LHV was observed among deer from different wildlife management zones. Mule deer-LHV is also a potential marker for evaluating the effectiveness of disease management activities because of its moderate prevalence, host specificity, ease of sample collection and the availability of a rapid and low-cost method for its detection. A variable region of the mule deer-LHV genome needs to be identified if this virus to be used as an inferential tool for studying host population structure.

Chronic wasting disease (CWD) was detected in Saskatchewan wild deer populations in 2000 which prompted disease management actions consisting of population reduction. Little is known about population structure, health status, interactions or movement patterns of deer in Saskatchewan and these factors are important in designing a management program for CWD. As part of an ongoing study on deer movement patterns of wild deer in southern Saskatchewan, a survey was conducted to: 1) determine prevalence of CWD and selected infectious agents in mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), and 2) identify infectious agents which could be used as a surrogate measure of the effectiveness of the adopted CWD management strategies. Tonsil biopsies, feces and blood were collected from 254 mule deer and 43 white-tailed deer during winters of 2006, 2007 and 2008. Immunohistochemical staining of tonsil biopsies for CWD revealed a prevalence of 2.4% (6/249) in mule deer and 0% (0/43) in white-tailed deer. Parasitological investigation of 253 fecal samples from mule deer identified eggs of nematodes in the superfamily Trichostrongyloidea (29.2%); and parasitic stages of the following genera: Nematodirus (7.1%), Skrjabinema (14.3%), Trichuris (0.8%), Moniezia (16.2%), Thysanosoma (12.2%), Orthostrongylus (35.2%), Eimeria (13.4%) and Giardia (0%, 0/137). A similar investigation of 42 white-tailed deer fecal samples identified parasitic stages of nematodes in the super family Trichostrongyloidea (4.8%) and in genera of Orthostrongylus (2.4%), Moniezia (2.4%) and Eimeria (2.4%). Dorsal-spined larvae were detected in 2.4% of the white-tailed deer fecal samples. In serum samples from 253 mule deer, antibodies (Ab) were detected against bovine herpesvirus1 (BoHV-1) (34.8%), parainfluenza-3 (PI-3) (56.5%), bovine virus diarrhoea virus (BVDV-1) (30.8%) and Neospora caninum (15.4%, 36/245). In serum samples from 40 white-tailed deer, Ab to BoHV-1(32.5%), PI-3 (35%), BVD-1 (12.5%) and Neospora caninum (20.5%, 8/39) was detected. Based on relative host specificity, moderate prevalence and horizontal routes of transmission, herpesvirus, parainfluenza 3, Eimeria and Skrjabinema were identified as infectious agents which could potentially be used to evaluate the effectiveness of disease management strategies, which may in turn predict the response of CWD to these same strategies. Using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) a herpesvirus was detected, in 42.1% (40/95) of retropharyngeal lymph nodes from hunter-submitted mule deer and white-tailed deer heads from Saskatchewan in 2007. DNA sequences of the partial DNA polymerase gene from this virus were 98 - 100% identical to mule deer lymphotropic herpesvirus (mule deer-LHV). A 3.6 kb contiguous sequence of mule deer-LHV genome was generated by genome walking (GenBank Accession number: HM014314). Use of a mule deer-LHV-specific PCR on buffy coat samples collected during winters of 2007 and 2008, detected mule deer-LHV in 42.1% (67/158) of mule deer and 33.3% (8/24) of white-tailed deer. Very little DNA sequence diversity in the partial sequences of glycoprotein B (gB) gene and the intergenic spacer regions between DPOL and gB gene of mule deer-LHV was observed among deer from different wildlife management zones. Mule deer-LHV is also a potential marker for evaluating the effectiveness of disease management activities because of its moderate prevalence, host specificity, ease of sample collection and the availability of a rapid and low-cost method for its detection. A variable region of the mule deer-LHV genome needs to be identified if this virus to be used as an inferential tool for studying host population structure.

Overgrazing and fire suppression has left much rangeland in poor condition for various wildlife species. Prescribed fire is one range improvement practice used to restore degraded wildlife habitat. I determined the effect of prescribed fire on whitetailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) spatial and temporal distribution, in the presence of cattle grazing. Three 40 ha patches, constituting 10% and 6% of the land area in the lesser and greater Yellow Bluff pasture, respectively, were burned in September 2005. To determine habitat use and distribution of deer relative to these burns 3 bucks and 3 does were netted from a helicopter and fitted with Global Positioning System (GPS) telemetry collars (Lotek™ GPS_3300S) for a period of 30 days during each season. For estimation of spatial distribution of deer, the collars were programmed to take a position fix every hour to reduce problems associated with spatial autocorrelation. For 12 days within this period the collars recorded animal location every 5 minutes to compare habitat use with 6–9 GPS collars (GPS_3300LR) placed on cattle. This allowed me to examine fine-scale movements of deer relative to cattle. Trials were conducted prior to the burn and in each season for one year after the burn. Areas to be burned were not favored by deer. A month after the burn in Fall 2005 there was an increase in use of the burned areas by deer. Deer preference for burned areas fell in Spring and Summer 2006, but in Fall 2006 females dramatically increased their use of the burns. This is possibly an artifact of small sample size and the random selection of individuals. Interaction between deer and cattle was minimal, as they inhabited different areas. When cattle moved within approximately 50 m of a stationary deer the deer was likely to move away. Vegetation measurements showed no significant change in shrub cover and density and a decline in available herbaceous forage on both treatment and control sites in the second year. The lack of vegetative response because of drought conditions was likely the cause of the lack of response by the deer to the burns.

The purpose of my research was to test the hypothesis that the availability of fresh, naturally occurring water may limit the distribution of Florida Key Deer (Odocoileus virginianus clavium). More specifically, I was trying to determine if there was enough fresh, drinkable water for the deer on each of the islands. To test the hypothesis, I developed a model that simulated likely seasonal fluctuations in fresh water availability in naturally occurring waterholes within the Key Deer range. I estimated 60 scenarios representing different weather (precipitation and evaporation) conditions, different literature estimates of the daily water requirement of Key Deer and also different upper salinity thresholds for drinkable water. Results showed that 1) even under the most favorable conditions in terms of fresh water availability, there was not enough fresh, drinkable water for the deer on any of the islands. Results also showed that 2) high salinity was important in determining the fresh water availability to the deer, in addition to the lack of water volume. Although these results suggest a prolonged seasonal shortage of fresh, naturally occurring water on each of the islands, deer were present on all of the islands during all seasons. One possible reason for the lack of correlation between Key Deer distribution and naturally occurring waterholes is the availability of man-made water sources (e.g. birdbaths, swimming pools).

White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) dispersal and excursion movements impact gene flow, population dynamics, and disease spread. Knowledge of movement characteristics and habitat selection during dispersal could provide the ability to predict how deer may relocate themselves within the landscape while providing managers valuable information regarding corridors for gene flow and disease spread. My objectives were to 1) test the hypothesis that extra-home-range movements occur as a strategy to broaden mating opportunities or as a means of searching for higher quality resources in this fragmented landscape, 2) compare occurrence rates and path movement metrics for dispersal and excursion movements to determine if underlying differences in behavior exist that would allude to mechanisms for accepting the risk of leaving a home range, 3) create and test the performance of expert opinion and step selection function resistance models at predicting deer dispersal movements, and 4) fit single and multiple random walk models to dispersal path data to determine movement states occurring within this behavior. During 2011-2014, I placed GPS collars programmed to take hourly locations on 49 fawn and yearling white-tailed deer in agricultural east-central Illinois to record dispersal and excursion movement paths. Linear mixed effects models were used to test for differences in path characteristics between sexes and ages (e.g., distance, straightness, duration, and speed). I used known-fate models, with demographic, temporal, and home range variables as covariates, to obtain dispersal and excursion occurrence rate estimates. Ten dispersal and 54 excursion movement paths were recorded during the study. Dispersal paths were longer and straighter (P < 0.001), and trended toward being longer in duration (P = 0.080) and faster in speed (P = 0.085), than excursion paths. Dispersal rates differed by sex (annual estimate ± SE with ages pooled: males 0.81 ± 0.12, females 0.16 ± 0.15) and were greatest during the breeding season (14-day estimates for males: winter 0.00 ± 0.01, fawning 0.02 ± 0.1, prebreeding 0.01 ± 0.01, and breeding 0.31 ± 0.15, and females: winter 0.00 ± 0.01, fawning 0.01 ± 0.1, prebreeding 0.01 ± 0.01, and breeding 0.04 ± 0.03). In contrast, I found no evidence that excursion rates were influenced by demographic, temporal, or home range variables (annual: 0.78 ± 0.06). I compared 2 methods of resistance modeling for predicting deer dispersal paths. I created an expert opinion survey and calculated a dispersal step selection function (SSF) to rank habitat variables and create 2 types of resistance maps to dispersal movements. I created least-cost paths with the starting and ending points coinciding with recorded dispersal paths within these 2 resistance maps. I compared the created paths to actual paths and a null straight line path using a path deviation index (PDI), path straightness, and path cost/m as variables of interest. Experts ranked land cover variables differently by season, applying a lower resistance value to agriculture cover during the summer/fall period, so 2 versions of the expert opinion resistance maps were created. For the SSF, I found that both forest cover and streams had significant nonlinear effects on deer dispersal movements. Assuming that all other factors remained constant, deer were more likely (≥ 0.50 probability) to move toward forested habitat when located < 335 m and when > 2795 m away. Deer dispersal movement behavior relating to streams followed a similar trend but with deer always having > 0.56 probability to move toward a stream than away. For least-cost path comparison, I conducted 3 ANOVAs (α = 0.05 throughout) to test for mean differences in calculated path metrics for all paths with path type as a within-subjects effect. I found no difference between the expert opinion survey model, the SSF model, and the null straight line model at predicting dispersal paths. PDI values were similar among all models (F1,9 = 0.004, P = 0.99). The SSF paths (0.91 ± 0.02) were significantly straighter then both the expert opinion (0.57 ± 0.03) and actual deer paths (0.44 ± 0.06; F1, 9 = 32.65, P < 0.001), but the expert opinion path did not differ from the actual path (P = 0.08). Path costs differed within the expert opinion survey resistance map (F1, 9 = 14.21, P < 0.001) with the expert opinion least cost paths (23.64 ± 3.14) having lower resistance/m than both the actual (46.15 ± 3.85) and straight line paths (48.74 ± 3.94; P < 0.001 for both). However, the actual and straight line paths did not differ (P = 0.872). There were no difference in path costs between the actual, SSF least-cost path, and straight line paths within the SSF resistance map (F1, 9 = 0.454, P = 0.64). I constructed and attempted to fit single and multiple random models to collected dispersal locations using WinBUGS v. 1.4.3. I was able to fit a single random walk model to deer dispersal paths but the more complex random walk models did not converge. I used the average parameter values derived from the single model to simulate deer dispersal paths and compared them to observed Net Squared Displacement. My simulated paths underpredicted deer displacement for 0.90 of individuals. Deer in east-central Illinois are very mobile and commonly make excursion movements throughout the year. The fact that I recorded differing dispersal rates within the same study area over a temporally short period from a previous study highlight the need for managers to obtain recent estimates of population parameters when making management decisions. The frequency of excursion movements should not be overlooked by managers as it is a behavior that can influence gene flow and potentially spread disease across the landscape at a localized scale. The preference for forest and stream habitats during dispersal can allow managers to focus surveillance or culling efforts around these types of habitats. The application of the least-cost path modeling technique appears to be ineffective at predicting deer dispersal paths, which emphasizes the importance of validating these types of models with actual data. The results from the random walk analysis highlight the need to collect as many locations as possible during temporally-short movements to understand the mechanisms acting upon them.

Maternal factors have the potential to influence the morphometrics of offspring; however, the magnitude and persistence of those influences are not well known. I investigated the extent to which maternal factors influenced offspring phenotype at the individual and population level for captive white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) originating from three distinct physiographic regions of Mississippi, USA. First, I tested whether male white-tailed deer displayed improvements in weaponry and body size after two generations of being released from nutritional restrictions. I found that improved nutrition positively influenced all morphometrics; however, we observed variation in magnitude of improvement. Antler size was most responsive to improved nutrition while body mass and skeletal structures were less responsive; potentially indicating an adaptive strategy allowing males to increase yearly reproductive success without jeopardizing lifetime reproductive success. Second, we assessed whether maternal characteristics, early life characteristics or a combination of both persistently influenced morphometrics throughout maturity. I found that late birth date positively influenced offspring body mass through three-years of age; indicating that late-born fawns over-compensated for a late start to life. I also identified an indirect silver-spoon effect as early-, heavy-born fawns were heavy juveniles. In turn, heavy juveniles were also heavy adults. Therefore, male white-tailed deer may gain reproductive opportunities by displaying one of two strategies to increase body mass. Lastly, I estimated heritability for six antler characteristics and quantified the influence of maternal factors such as parturition date and litter size on the predictability of antler size. All antler characteristics were highly heritable. Yearling antler size was a moderate predictor of antler size later in life, but accounting for maternal factors greatly improved predictability. The influence of maternal factors decreased with increasing male age suggesting that compensation for the negative influence of maternal factors may occur after an individual’s first year of life. My results suggest that although antler characteristics are highly heritable, the large influence of maternal factors on predictability indicates that use of yearling antler size as selective harvest criteria may not achieve all management goals.