White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) are a common and important game species throughout much of the central Appalachian region. The central Appalachian region encompasses a wide variety of habitat conditions and spatial habitat arrangements that may influence deer populations and management as well as deer impacts to ecosystems. Locally to regionally, deer populations have had an increasingly negative effect on forest biodiversity and a growing influence on forest succession. In Virginia, the combination of these factors has prompted establishment of deer population management goals and policies designed to support conservation of biodiversity, forest regeneration, and continued hunting opportunities. However, limited information is available to inform broad-scale assessment of herbivory impacts. Likewise, lack of understanding about the spatial variability of herbivory across and among landscapes impedes consistent application of ecological measures under differing management scenarios and landscape conditions. I evaluated deer herbivory intensity, the predictability of browsing rates, and the relationships and possible interactions between deer body mass and potential food sources, winter severity, and deer population density in the central Appalachian Mountains of Virginia. My results provide support for the inclusion of spatial factors to help partition variation of deer herbivory to allow for improved precision and accuracy in the design of field herbivory impact assessment methods and improve their application across various landscape contexts. Also, effective broad-scale herbivory impact assessment should include spatially-balanced vegetation monitoring that accounts for regional differences in deer forage preference. Agriculture and other non-forest habitats may provide resources that result in larger deer body mass either directly through food items or indirectly through alteration of the remaining forest habitat such as through increased edge. This suggests that available food sources and habitat are related to deer physiological parameters in the central Appalachian region and vary across landscapes. Likewise, these factors can change or can be affected through management across time. As a result, spatial approaches for monitoring and analysis are required for effective management and understanding of deer populations and herbivory impacts to biodiversity. / Ph. D.

White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) (N=15) movements were determined with use of radio telemetry techniques to determine the utilization of corridor habitat on the Lake Ray Roberts Greenbelt Corridor (RRGC) in north central Texas. Home ranges were calculated using three estimation types. Male white-tailed deer tend to have home ranges twice that of female home ranges. Seasonal home ranges were largest during spring (Feb. - April) and fall (Aug. - Oct.) seasons. Males had greater seasonal variation in utilization than females. No statistically significant difference (p=0.24) between white-tailed deer locations when the RRGC experiences heavy human traffic compared to days when there is light human traffic. Linearity indices indicated home ranges less linear than expected (LI = 3.02). The RRGC should be maintained at its current status to provide a variety of vegetational types and protective cover for white-tailed deer and other wildlife of Denton County.

I analyzed precision and accuracy of lactation data to reflect actual fawn recruitment for various levels of fecundity, neonatal mortality, harvest intensity, and hunter selectivity. I evaluated and developed a correction equation to adjust for harvest date effects on lactation detectability. I compared metrics of site-specific fawn recruitment (e.g., lactation rates, hunter observation fawn-to-doe ratios, and post-season fawn-to-doe ratios) among themselves, and to site-specific indices of carnivore abundance, for 18 properties across Mississippi and Alabama. Accuracy of lactation rates are compromised due to variation at minimal harvest intensity and insensitivity to change in fetal rate or neonatal mortality. Lactation data can be corrected for harvest date effects on lactation detectability. Hunter observation data are variable and poorly represent fawn recruitment. Lactation data are related to fawn recruitment and can be used to roughly estimate fawn recruitment. Carnivore abundance had neither a significant nor consistent effect on fawn recruitment.

No description available.

White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) are a highly charismatic game species with considerable ecological and economic impacts across most of their range. In the Central Appalachian Mountains, deer are a keystone species in forested ecosystems. Regionally, populations vary in herd growth or decline. These fluctuations are important in that they often drive many aspects of population management and regulation, which are dependent on herd demographics. Some key population vital rates allowing better understanding of these changes in white-tailed deer herds are survival, cause-specific mortality, home-range variation, both broad and fine-scale resource selection, and ultimately population growth trends in response to changes in both population vital rates and hunter harvest regulations. In this study, I address each of these concepts within a deer population in Bath County, Virginia, that has presumably been in overall decline since the early 1990's. From June-September, 2019-2020, I monitored survival and cause specific mortality of 57 neonate white-tailed deer until 12 weeks of age. Fawn and adult female survival was 0.310 (95% CI = 0.210-0.475) and 0.871 (95%CI=0.790-0.961) respectively. During the study, I observed a total of 37 fawn mortalities and identified the cause of death using field evidence and through analyzing genetics from residual predator salvia recovered on deer carcasses. Mortalities included 28 predation events and 9 deaths from other causes (e.g., abandonment, malnutrition, or disease). Black bears accounted for 48.6% of all mortality and 64.2% of known predations within our study. My top model identified elevation as a significant predictor of fawn survival, with mortality risk increasing 20% for every 100m increase in elevation. My model using observed vital rates predicted an increasing population of λ = 1.10 (interquartile range, IQR 1.06-1.14). The population was predicted to increase by 2% with a 10% increase in doe harvest (λ = 1.02, IQR = 0.97-1.06) but declined by 7% at 20% harvest (λ = 0.93, IQR = 0.89-0.96). I found that fawning home ranges of females that successfully reared fawns to the end of the season had significantly larger home ranges than those that were unsuccessful at higher elevations. Fawning home ranges for females with fawns increased approximately 71ha in size for every 100m increase in mean home range elevation, whereas seasonal home ranges of females without fawns decreased approximately 1.5 ha for every 100m increase in mean home range elevation. Deer selected fawn-rearing areas nearer to forested edges, open habitats, and at higher elevations, while they avoided areas near disturbed and mature forests. Within the fawn rearing area, females selected locations closer to disturbed forest, open habitats, and forested edge, while avoiding mature forest habitats, and higher elevations. Females selected birth sites with higher levels of visual obstruction. Using a step-selection method for real-time resource selection across biological seasons, we found that female deer selected for open areas during the fawning, breeding, early gestational, and late gestational seasons. During the fall breeding season, females avoided forested edge, but selected for areas at higher elevations. During early gestational seasons females selected disturbed habitats and areas at higher elevations while again avoiding forested edge. Overall, my work highlights variations in population dynamics of white-tailed deer in areas of the Central Appalachian Mountains that are primarily characterized by poor habitat quality and provides novel insights into fine-scale spatial ecology of female deer across biological seasons within the region. Ultimately, while the deer population in our study was not predicted to be in decline, this work supports predation risk as being a significant factor associated with habitat quality. / Doctor of Philosophy / White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) are a game species with extensive ecological and economic impacts across most of their range. In the central Appalachian Mountains, many populations across the region vary in terms of herd size growth, stability, or decline. These fluctuations are important in that they often drive many aspects of population management and regulation, which are dependent on the status of herd demographics. Some key population vital rates that aid us in better understanding these changes in white-tailed deer herds are survival and cause-specific mortality, home-range variation in association with habitat quality and the ability to successfully reproduce, population trends under hypothetical management scenarios, and resource selection of various habitats that are available across the landscape. In this study, I address each of these concepts within a deer population in Bath County, Virginia, which has presumably been in decline since the early 1990's. As expected, fawn survival was lower than previously reported from other study areas of the Central Appalachians Mountains. Predation was the leading cause of fawn mortality, with black bears being responsible for most predation events. Fawn mortality risk was significantly associated with elevation - where fawns at higher elevations were those at greater risk. Surprisingly, the deer population in Bath County was projected to be increasing under current conditions and was also projected to be stable-to-increasing even under some hypothetical scenarios which would negatively impact population growth (i.e., 10% increase in female harvest or 17% reduction in fawn survival). Fawning home ranges of collared females which successfully reared known fawns to the end of the biological season were significantly influenced by elevation; such that females with fawns had home ranges that increased in size with increasing elevation, whereas females without fawns had home ranges which decreased slightly in size with increasing elevation. At birth sites, females selected locations characterized by higher levels of visual obstruction compared to randomly sampled areas. Of the habitat types analyzed, both selection or avoidance of specific habitats varied across both biological season and spatial scale. Ultimately, while I found that some deer populations associated with poor quality habitats in the Central Appalachians may not be in decline, deer were likely influenced greatly by habitat quality – especially pertaining to predation risk – throughout Bath County.

Deer (<i> Odocoileus </i> spp.) are an important cultural and economic resource. They are the most popular game species in the United States and the number one driver of conservation funding. On the other hand, they also cause damage to resources including to the agricultural industry, private property and to humans via deer vehicle collisions. Many areas in eastern North America have experienced a decline in white-tailed deer (<i> Odocoileus virginianus </i>) populations over the past twenty years concurrent with changes in landscape, deer harvest strategies, and increasing and expanding black bear (<i> Ursus americanus </i>) and coyote (<i> Canis latrans </i>) populations. Most studies have addressed this problem at small spatial and temporal scales and in areas where predation was assumed to be limiting population growth. We evaluated white-tailed deer fawn recruitment both directly and indirectly at relatively broader spatial and temporal scales. We studied fawn survival on Marine Corps Base Quantico in Virginia, USA from 2008–2019. We used the Kaplan-Meier estimator, and Cox-proportional hazards models to assess annual survival and factors that influence hazard risk such as sex, weather, landscape composition and configuration and food availability. On Marine Corps Base Quantico, we found an increase in red oak mast abundance increases survival and probability of fawn survival was higher during the first interval of the study (2008–2010; 0.71 [0.52–0.96]; survival probability [CI95%]) than the last three intervals (2011–2013; 0.46 [0.30–0.70]; 2014–2016; 0.48 [0.35–0.66] and 2017–2019; 0.50 [0.39–0.63]). We also found that predation was the leading source of mortality. We assessed recruitment using lactation status from hunter harvest data collected by the Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries during a 22-year period in 30 counties in the Appalachian Mountains of western Virginia. We predicted lactation status as a function of landscape composition and configuration, oak mast abundance, weather, age, and predator detection rates using generalized linear mixed models. We found land cover diversity index positively and black bear detection rate negatively influenced recruitment. Age also predicted lactation status with middle-aged females (3.5–4.5 years old) having a higher lactation probability than mature (≥5.5 years old) age and young (2.5 years old) age class deer. Based on these findings, recruitment is likely to be greater in areas that are heterogeneous. Therefore, if an increase in recruitment is desired silvicultural practices such as fire and timber harvest could be used to permanently change land cover types. These silvicultural practices could also be used to increase the number of oaks on the landscape, and augment production of mature oaks as red oak mast abundance influenced fawn survival. Also reducing predation by manipulating predator densities could improve recruitment. Another potential option which needs further research, would be to reduce predator efficiency by increasing hiding cover for fawns. / Master of Science / Deer (<i> Odocoileus </i> spp.) are an important cultural and economic resource. They are the most popular game species in the United States and the number one driver of conservation funding. Conversely, they also cause damage to resources including to the agricultural industry, private property and to humans via deer vehicle collisions. Some areas in eastern North America have experienced a decline in white-tailed deer (<i> Odocoileus virginianus </i>) populations over the past twenty years concurrent with the colonization of coyotes (<i> Canis latrans </i>) as well as changes in habitat. Therefore, we aimed to determine white-tailed deer fawn survival rates and factors affecting recruitment across a large spatial and temporal scale. Recruitment is when an individual becomes part of the reproductive population. However, for harvestable populations, recruitment is when individuals can be legally harvested for the first time. On Marine Corps Base Quantico from 2008–2019, in Virginia, USA we found that probability of fawn survival was higher during the first interval of the study (2008–2010; 0.71 [0.52–0.96]; survival probability [CI95%]) than the last three intervals (2011–2013; 0.46 [0.30–0.70]; 2014–2016; 0.48 [0.35–0.66] and 2017–2019; 0.50 [0.39–0.63]). We also discovered predation was the leading cause of death and probability of survival increased with increasing red oak mast abundance. Over a large spatial (30 counties) and temporal (22 years) scale we examined fawn recruitment by predicting lactation status of female harvested white-tailed deer in the Appalachians Mountains of western Virginia. We found land cover diversity index positively and black bear (<i> Ursus americanus </i>) detection rate negatively influenced recruitment. Age also predicted lactation status with middle-aged females (3.5–4.5 years old) having a higher lactation probability than mature (≥5.5 years old) age and young (2.5 years old) age class deer. Based on these findings, recruitment is likely to be greater in areas that have a mixture of land cover types. Therefore, if an increase in recruitment is desired silvicultural practices such as fire and timber harvest could be used to permanently change land cover types. These silvicultural practices could also be used to increase the number of oaks on the landscape, and augment production of mature oaks as red oak mast abundance influenced fawn survival. Also reducing predation by manipulating predator densities could improve recruitment. Overall, we found diversity of land cover types, food availability, predators, and age influences population dynamics of white-tailed deer.

<p>Human interactions with white-tailed deer (<em>Odocoileus virginianus</em>) continue to change across the U.S. The growth of deer populations and urbanization of human populations have shifted values for wildlife away from traditional use toward mutual coexistence while simultaneously providing habitat for deer to thrive.<strong> </strong>Still, a mismatch exists between the reality of human-deer interactions and the management of them. Despite a changing social landscape, the human dimensions of deer management remain focused on hunting interests and the mitigation of crop damage to agricultural producers. Amid a national push to broaden wildlife ‘stakeholders’ to encompass all potential beneficiaries of wildlife, state wildlife agencies need to assess the needs and concerns of the broader public they serve to determine whether and how to engage non-traditional groups in wildlife management planning.</p> <p>Recognizing these needs, the Indiana Department of Natural Resources (IN-DNR) partnered with Purdue University in 2018 to initiate the Integrated Deer Management Project (IDMP). As part of the IDMP, this dissertation comprises the first empirical assessment of social perceptions of white-tailed deer across Indiana. My research aimed to: (i) examine the initial context of human-deer interactions in Indiana and identify key social and cognitive factors that shape them; (ii) investigate how emotions, an understudied construct, interact with beliefs and attitudes to influence resident judgements about deer management; (iii) understand existing levels of satisfaction with deer management, potentials for social conflict over management approaches, and their social-ecological drivers; and (iv) develop indices and tools that can help IN-DNR officials better account for social perceptions and concerns in deer management planning. Due to a lack of prior knowledge about human-deer interactions in the state, I used an exploratory mixed-methods research design to address these objectives. I began by conducting 59 semi-structured interviews with residents around Indiana and two focus groups in the city of Bloomington (n=14) to understand their existing perceptions, beliefs, attitudes, and emotions related to deer and deer management. These interviews informed the development of a quantitative survey which I distributed to 6,000 residents across the state. I received 1806 completed surveys for a response rate of 33%.</p> <p>My data show that social perceptions of deer and deer management remain complex, driven by dynamic feedbacks among emotions, personal experiences, livelihood and behavioral contexts, beliefs about deer management, and beliefs about other social groups. I found that mixed emotions, situational contexts, and perceived power imbalances play key roles in shaping and shifting deer-related cognitions, yet models of cognitive processing, and human-wildlife interactions more broadly, neglect these dynamics. Emotions, specifically, have been marginalized by researchers and practitioners, likely due to the perception that they represent irrational reactions rather than calculated judgements. Under different scenarios of encountering deer, however, I found that respondent emotions exert a mediating effect on their judgments about deer management, and that the type of deer encountered matters. Emotions thus work together with cognitions to process various stimuli in a human-wildlife encounter and reach a normative decision. I posit that understanding when and why emotional responses arise will help practitioners develop more effective and socially accepted approaches to wildlife management.</p> <p>I next developed and analyzed indices of public satisfaction with the IN-DNR and potentials for social conflict over deer management approaches. I found that public satisfaction with deer management is nuanced and multidimensional. Cognitive variables like residents’ perceived acceptability of management methods and their deer-related concerns most strongly predicted agency performance and quality measures of satisfaction, whereas demographic characteristics including self-identity, wildlife value orientation, and allowance of hunting on one’s property exerted the strongest influences on trust components of satisfaction. Future studies should advance a multidimensional conception of satisfaction and associate it with key variables that I suspect underly satisfaction but were not captured in this study: perceived control, psychological distance, and norms of knowledge exchange between wildlife agencies and the public. Next, I found that potentials for social conflict over deer management varied with resident self-identities and management methods but showed more predictable variation with political ideologies. Geographically, hotspots of social conflict clustered around urban areas, indicating that cities and their residents should serve as a focus for public engagement efforts and mixed management strategies. Expanding agency conceptions of public satisfaction and social conflict represents a critical step towards broadening support for wildlife management and practicing good wildlife governance.<strong> </strong>I conclude by discussing barriers to integrating social and ecological data and the practicality of incorporating complex social dimensions into wildlife management planning.</p>

I evaluated effects of 5 intensive pine plantation establishment regimes during years 1 – 5 post-establishment on vegetation communities, loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) growth, nutritional carrying capacity for white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), habitat values for northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus), and projected financial viability in the Lower Coastal Plain of Mississippi. Treatments were combinations of mechanical site preparation (MSP), chemical site preparation (CSP), and herbaceous weed control (HWC) designed to reflect the range of operational intensities on industrial forest lands in the southeastern U.S. Results should inform plantation management decisions throughout the region. Pine growth increased with greater treatment intensity. At age 5, trees in the most intensively managed treatment were 1.5 m taller than those in the least intensive treatment. Mechanical site preparation improved growth by alleviating soil physical problems. Growth and yield projections indicated that increased fiber yield may not justify investment in more intensive regimes; financial analysis favored the least expensive treatment, though all regimes produced potential internal rates of return > 9% when managed to financial maturity. Use of MSP with banded HWC yielded abundant low-quality deer forage sufficient for body maintenance; nutritional needs for lactating does were better served by CSP with banded HWC. Broadcast HWC reduced biomass of high-quality forbs. In this region of limited soil nutrients and abundant low-quality forages, the optimal combination of maintenance-level and lactation-level nutrition was provided by CSP or CSP and MSP combined with banded HWC. I evaluated vegetation communities for nesting, loafing, brood-rearing, and fall and winter food suitability for northern bobwhite. No treatment provided brood-rearing habitat due to combined lack of bare ground and forb coverage. Fall and winter feeding, nesting, and loafing cover were best produced by MSP and CSP combined with banded HWC. However, lack of brood-rearing cover may reduce or eliminate usable space in all treatments. Differences between vegetation communities were caused by use of CSP, which eliminated many residual woody and vine species, and by differences in broadcast versus banded HWC. Herbicide use decreased plant diversity and species richness, and impacted successional trajectory. Community differences persisted through year 5.