Spectrum splitting is an approach to increasing the conversion efficiency of a photovoltaic (PV) system. Several methods can be used to perform this function which requires efficient spatial separation of different spectral bands of the incident solar radiation. In this paper several of holographic methods for implementing spectrum splitting are reviewed along with the benefits and disadvantages associated with each approach. The review indicates that a volume holographic lens has many advantages for spectrum splitting in terms of both power conversion efficiency and energy yield. A specific design for a volume holographic spectrum splitting lens is discussed for use with high bandgap InGaP and low bandgap silicon PV cells. The holographic lenses are modeled using rigorous coupled wave analysis, and the optical efficiency is evaluated using non-sequential raytracing. A proof-of-concept off-axis holographic lens is also recorded in dichromated gelatin film and the spectral diffraction efficiency of the hologram is measured with multiple laser sources across the diffracted spectral band. The experimental volume holographic lens (VHL) characteristics are compared to an ideal spectrum splitting filter in terms of power conversion efficiency and energy yield in environments with high direct normal incidence (DNI) illumination and high levels of diffuse illumination. The results show that the experimental VHL can achieve 62.5% of the ideal filter power conversion efficiency, 64.8% of the ideal filter DNI environment energy yield, and 57.7% of the ideal diffuse environment energy yield performance.

Neste projeto foram desenvolvidos elementos ópticos difrativos fabricados em vidro óptico com modulação de fase, elementos fabricados em silício e em Diamond Like Carbon (carbono tipo diamante) com modulação completa de fase e amplitude. O vidro óptico começa a transmitir em 277 nm (ultravioleta) e vai até o infravermelho próximo (2200 nm) da mesma maneira que o Diamond Like Carbon (que começa a transmitir em 330 nm). Já o silício é um material que começa a transmitir no infravermelho próximo (em torno de 980 nm) e vai até o infravermelho médio (16000 nm). Tanto para o Diamond Like Carbon como para o vidro óptico, optou-se por desenvolver dispositivos que operem para um comprimento de onda de 632,8 nm. Já os elementos ópticos difrativos baseados em silício foram fabricados para operar em 2 comprimentos de onda: 1550 nm e 10600 nm. Para os dispositivos fabricados, foram utilizadas etapas de limpeza de substrato, de deposição de filmes, de litografia e de corrosão úmida e por plasma. A etapa de corrosão por plasma foi o principal objeto de estudo do processo de fabricação com o intuito de otmilizá-la. Foram feitos estudos de taxa de corrosão dos materiais com diferentes composições gasosas com a finalidade de se encontrar os parâmetros mais adequados para otimizar a fabricação dos dispositivos. As melhores condições de processo para o vidro corroído com plasma de CF4 são pressão de 100 mTorr e potência de 400 W, para o Diamond Like Carbon corroído com plasma de O2, pressão de 25 mTorr e potência de 50 W e para o silício corroído com plasma de SF6 os parâmetros são pressão de 100 mTorr e potência de 150 W. Análises ópticas dos elementos, fabricados com esses processos foram realizadas. Na análise óptica dos dispositivos de vidro com dois e quatro níveis de modulação de fase ficou evidente que os elementos ópticos apresentaram bom desempenho devido à uniformidade da intensidade da luz projetada nas imagens e da baixa intensidade do ponto de ordem zero, além das imagens estarem bem focadas e definidas. Para os dispositivos fabricados em Diamond Like Carbon foram formadas imagens bem definidas e focadas. Em uma análise óptica da rugosidade RMS dos filmes finos de Diamond Like Carbon através da obtenção da Reflectância Total e da Reflectância Difusa, foi encontrado um valor de 18,8 nm, o qual se encontra bem abaixo do limite de 63 nm, o que faz com que o dispositivo gere uma imagem otimizada. / In this project it has been manufactured diffractive optical elements in three materials, optical glass, Diamond Like Carbon (DLC) and silicon. These elements were applied in phase modulation devices. The extra advantage of silicon and DLC were the amplitude modulation in visible and ultra-violet spectra respectively. The optic glass starts to transmit at the wavelength 277 nm (UV light) and goes till the near infrared in the same way that the Diamond Like Carbon (that starts to transmit in 330 nm). Silicon is a material that starts to transmit in the near infrared (980 nm) and goes till the middle infrared (16000 nm). Both, DLC and optic glass, was opted to developing devices that operate for a 632,8 nm wavelength. Diffractive Optical Elements silicon based had been manufactured to operate in two wavelengths: 1550 nm and 10600 nm. For the manufactured diffractive optical elements, were used process stages of substrate cleanness, films deposition, lithography and hybrid wet and dry plasma etching. The plasma etching stage was the most studied manufacturing process, aiming of optimized it. For this, some studies of materials etching rate with different gases were made with the purpose to find the more adequate parameters of Radio Frequency power and pressure to reduce the process time to obtain the necessary thickness and low surface roughness. The best conditions of plasma etching process were 100 mTorr pressure and Radio Frequency power of 400 W for the glass, 25 mTorr pressure and Radio Frequency power 50 W for the Diamond Like Carbon and the parameters are 100 mTorr pressure and Radio Frequency power 150 W for silicon. Optical analyses of the diffractive optical elements manufactured with these processes had been realized. In the optical analysis of the glass devices with two and four levels of phase modulation was evident that the optic elements had good performance due to uniformity of the projected light intensity in the images and low intensity of the zero order spot, as well the images are focused and defined. For elements manufactured in Diamond Like Carbon, defined and well-focused images had been formed. In an optic analysis of Diamond Like Carbon thin films RMS roughness through the Total Reflectance and the Diffuse Reflectance, was found a value of 18,8 nm roughness, which is below 63 nm limit, what do that the EOD generates an optimized image.

Neste projeto foram desenvolvidos elementos ópticos difrativos fabricados em vidro óptico com modulação de fase, elementos fabricados em silício e em Diamond Like Carbon (carbono tipo diamante) com modulação completa de fase e amplitude. O vidro óptico começa a transmitir em 277 nm (ultravioleta) e vai até o infravermelho próximo (2200 nm) da mesma maneira que o Diamond Like Carbon (que começa a transmitir em 330 nm). Já o silício é um material que começa a transmitir no infravermelho próximo (em torno de 980 nm) e vai até o infravermelho médio (16000 nm). Tanto para o Diamond Like Carbon como para o vidro óptico, optou-se por desenvolver dispositivos que operem para um comprimento de onda de 632,8 nm. Já os elementos ópticos difrativos baseados em silício foram fabricados para operar em 2 comprimentos de onda: 1550 nm e 10600 nm. Para os dispositivos fabricados, foram utilizadas etapas de limpeza de substrato, de deposição de filmes, de litografia e de corrosão úmida e por plasma. A etapa de corrosão por plasma foi o principal objeto de estudo do processo de fabricação com o intuito de otmilizá-la. Foram feitos estudos de taxa de corrosão dos materiais com diferentes composições gasosas com a finalidade de se encontrar os parâmetros mais adequados para otimizar a fabricação dos dispositivos. As melhores condições de processo para o vidro corroído com plasma de CF4 são pressão de 100 mTorr e potência de 400 W, para o Diamond Like Carbon corroído com plasma de O2, pressão de 25 mTorr e potência de 50 W e para o silício corroído com plasma de SF6 os parâmetros são pressão de 100 mTorr e potência de 150 W. Análises ópticas dos elementos, fabricados com esses processos foram realizadas. Na análise óptica dos dispositivos de vidro com dois e quatro níveis de modulação de fase ficou evidente que os elementos ópticos apresentaram bom desempenho devido à uniformidade da intensidade da luz projetada nas imagens e da baixa intensidade do ponto de ordem zero, além das imagens estarem bem focadas e definidas. Para os dispositivos fabricados em Diamond Like Carbon foram formadas imagens bem definidas e focadas. Em uma análise óptica da rugosidade RMS dos filmes finos de Diamond Like Carbon através da obtenção da Reflectância Total e da Reflectância Difusa, foi encontrado um valor de 18,8 nm, o qual se encontra bem abaixo do limite de 63 nm, o que faz com que o dispositivo gere uma imagem otimizada. / In this project it has been manufactured diffractive optical elements in three materials, optical glass, Diamond Like Carbon (DLC) and silicon. These elements were applied in phase modulation devices. The extra advantage of silicon and DLC were the amplitude modulation in visible and ultra-violet spectra respectively. The optic glass starts to transmit at the wavelength 277 nm (UV light) and goes till the near infrared in the same way that the Diamond Like Carbon (that starts to transmit in 330 nm). Silicon is a material that starts to transmit in the near infrared (980 nm) and goes till the middle infrared (16000 nm). Both, DLC and optic glass, was opted to developing devices that operate for a 632,8 nm wavelength. Diffractive Optical Elements silicon based had been manufactured to operate in two wavelengths: 1550 nm and 10600 nm. For the manufactured diffractive optical elements, were used process stages of substrate cleanness, films deposition, lithography and hybrid wet and dry plasma etching. The plasma etching stage was the most studied manufacturing process, aiming of optimized it. For this, some studies of materials etching rate with different gases were made with the purpose to find the more adequate parameters of Radio Frequency power and pressure to reduce the process time to obtain the necessary thickness and low surface roughness. The best conditions of plasma etching process were 100 mTorr pressure and Radio Frequency power of 400 W for the glass, 25 mTorr pressure and Radio Frequency power 50 W for the Diamond Like Carbon and the parameters are 100 mTorr pressure and Radio Frequency power 150 W for silicon. Optical analyses of the diffractive optical elements manufactured with these processes had been realized. In the optical analysis of the glass devices with two and four levels of phase modulation was evident that the optic elements had good performance due to uniformity of the projected light intensity in the images and low intensity of the zero order spot, as well the images are focused and defined. For elements manufactured in Diamond Like Carbon, defined and well-focused images had been formed. In an optic analysis of Diamond Like Carbon thin films RMS roughness through the Total Reflectance and the Diffuse Reflectance, was found a value of 18,8 nm roughness, which is below 63 nm limit, what do that the EOD generates an optimized image.

In this study the impact of outdoor temperature variations and solar illumination exposure on spectral filter material and holographic optical elements is examined. Although holographic components have been shown to be useful for solar spectrum splitting designs, relatively little quantitative data exist to demonstrate the extent to which these materials can withstand outdoor conditions. As researchers seek to investigate practical spectrum splitting designs, the environmental stability of holographic materials should be considered as an important factor. In the experiment presented, two holographic materials, Covestro Bayfol HX photopolymer and dichromated gelatin, and 3M reflective polymer filter materials are exposed to outdoor conditions for a period of several months. The environmental effect on absorption, spectral and angular bandwidth, peak efficiency, and Bragg matching conditions for the holograms are examined. Spectral bandwidth and transmittance of the 3M reflective filter material are also monitored. Holographic gratings are recorded, measured, and mounted on glass substrates and then sealed with a glass cover plate. The test samples are then mounted on a photovoltaic panel to simulate realistic temperature conditions and placed at an outdoor test facility in Tucson, Arizona. A duplicate set of holograms and 3M filter material is stored as a control group and periodically compared over the test period.

Neste trabalho, é proposto um esquema de cifragem e decifragem baseado em uma nova técnica de contraste de fase. Esta nova técnica, denominada \"técnica de contraste de fase de ordem zero\", transforma a modulação de fase para intensidade sem a necessidade de uma placa de alteração de fase (dot dielétrico de fase) no plano de Fourier de um correlator óptico 4f. Um processo de codificação, que não utiliza qualquer cálculo iterativo, é aplicado diretamente em uma imagem em níveis de cinza para gerar uma distribuição de fase. Em seguida, um processo de cifragem é realizado através da multiplicação da distribuição de fase por uma distribuição de fase aleatória. A vantagem deste método é o fácil esquema para recuperar a informação em níveis de cinza a partir da máscara de fase decifrada. A máscara de fase cifrada e a chave do sistema foram implementadas em SLMs (Spatial Light Modulators) do tipo LCTV (Liquid Crystal TV). As formas de codificação da imagem em níveis de cinza para gerar as máscaras de fase também foram investigadas. Como resultado, foram implementados dois tipos de EODs (Elementos Ópticos Difrativos) de fase. Um deles funciona no modo de transmissão, o outro, no modo de reflexão. Resultados experimentais mostram a aplicação da técnica de contraste de fase de ordem zero na visualização da informação codificada, tanto em SLM quanto em EODs de fase, e na verificação de padrões cifrados. / In this work, an encryption and decryption scheme based on a new phase contrast technique is proposed. This new technique, called the zero order phase contrast technique, transforma the phase modulation to intensity without the necessity of a phase-changing plate (phase dielectric dot) on the Fourier plane of a 4f optical correlator. A codification process, which does not use any iterative calculation, is applied directly in a gray level image to generate a phase distribution. After this, an encryption process is applied multiplying the phase distribution by a random phase distribution. The advantage of this method is the easy scheme to recover the gray level information from the decryption phase mask. The encrypted phase mask and the key of the system were implemented on Spatial Light Modulators of the kind LCTV. The encoding ways were investigated to generate the phase masks from gray level image, by implementing two kinds of phase Diffractive Optical Elements, operating in transmission and reflection modes. Experimental results show the successfully application of the zero order phase contrast technique in the visualization of encoded information both in Spatial Light Modulators and in phase only Diffractive Optical Elements as well as in the verification of encrypted patterns.

<p>Intense developments in optical metamaterials have led to a renaissance in several optics fields. Metamaterials, artificially structured media, provide several additional degrees of freedom that cannot be accessed with conventional materials. For example, metamaterials offer a convenient and precise way to explore a wide range of refractive indices, including negative values. </p><p>In this dissertation, I introduce the idea of metamaterial based diffractive optics. Merging diffractive optics with metamaterials has several benefits, including access to almost continuous phase profiles and a wide range of available controlled anisotropy. I demonstrate this concept with several examples. I begin with an example of metamaterial based blazed diffraction grating using gradient index metamaterials for <em>f</em>É = 10.6 <em>f</em>Êm. A series of non-resonant metamaterial elements were designed and fabricated to mimic a saw-tooth refractive index profile with a linear index variation of . The linear gradient profile is repeated periodically to form the equivalent of a blazed grating, with the gradient occurring across a spatial distance of 61 <em>f</em>Êm. The index gradient is confirmed by comparing the measured magnitudes of the -1, 0 and +1 diffracted orders to those obtained from full wave simulations. </p><p>In addition to a metamaterial grating, a metamaterial based computer-generated phase hologram was designed by implementing the Gerchberg-Saxton (GS) iterative algorithm to form a 2D phase panel. A three layer metamaterial hologram was fabricated, with the size of 750 <em>f</em>Êm ~ 750 <em>f</em>Êm. Each pixel is comprised of metamaterial elements. This simple demonstration shows the potential for practical applications of metamaterial based diffractive optics.</p><p>The demand for compact and integrated optoelectronic systems increases the urgency for optical components that can simultaneously perform various functions. This dissertation also presents an optical element capable of multiplexing two diffraction patterns for two orthogonal linear polarizations, based on the use of non-resonant metamaterial cross elements. The metamaterial cross elements provide unique building blocks for engineering arbitrary birefringence. As a proof-of-concept demonstration, I present the design and experimental characterization of a polarization multiplexed blazed diffraction grating and a polarization multiplexed computer-generated hologram, for the telecommunication wavelength of <em>f</em>É = 1.55 <em>f</em>Êm. A quantitative study of the polarization multiplexed grating reveals that this approach yields a very large polarization contrast ratio. The results show that metamaterials can form the basis for a versatile and compact platform useful in the design of multi-functional photonic devices. </p><p>The examples I have mentioned only provide a glimpse of the opportunities for metamaterials. I envision more compact optical devices, with greater functionality, being realized with metamaterials.</p> / Dissertation

Neste trabalho, é proposto um esquema de cifragem e decifragem baseado em uma nova técnica de contraste de fase. Esta nova técnica, denominada \"técnica de contraste de fase de ordem zero\", transforma a modulação de fase para intensidade sem a necessidade de uma placa de alteração de fase (dot dielétrico de fase) no plano de Fourier de um correlator óptico 4f. Um processo de codificação, que não utiliza qualquer cálculo iterativo, é aplicado diretamente em uma imagem em níveis de cinza para gerar uma distribuição de fase. Em seguida, um processo de cifragem é realizado através da multiplicação da distribuição de fase por uma distribuição de fase aleatória. A vantagem deste método é o fácil esquema para recuperar a informação em níveis de cinza a partir da máscara de fase decifrada. A máscara de fase cifrada e a chave do sistema foram implementadas em SLMs (Spatial Light Modulators) do tipo LCTV (Liquid Crystal TV). As formas de codificação da imagem em níveis de cinza para gerar as máscaras de fase também foram investigadas. Como resultado, foram implementados dois tipos de EODs (Elementos Ópticos Difrativos) de fase. Um deles funciona no modo de transmissão, o outro, no modo de reflexão. Resultados experimentais mostram a aplicação da técnica de contraste de fase de ordem zero na visualização da informação codificada, tanto em SLM quanto em EODs de fase, e na verificação de padrões cifrados. / In this work, an encryption and decryption scheme based on a new phase contrast technique is proposed. This new technique, called the zero order phase contrast technique, transforma the phase modulation to intensity without the necessity of a phase-changing plate (phase dielectric dot) on the Fourier plane of a 4f optical correlator. A codification process, which does not use any iterative calculation, is applied directly in a gray level image to generate a phase distribution. After this, an encryption process is applied multiplying the phase distribution by a random phase distribution. The advantage of this method is the easy scheme to recover the gray level information from the decryption phase mask. The encrypted phase mask and the key of the system were implemented on Spatial Light Modulators of the kind LCTV. The encoding ways were investigated to generate the phase masks from gray level image, by implementing two kinds of phase Diffractive Optical Elements, operating in transmission and reflection modes. Experimental results show the successfully application of the zero order phase contrast technique in the visualization of encoded information both in Spatial Light Modulators and in phase only Diffractive Optical Elements as well as in the verification of encrypted patterns.

In this paper a prototype spectrum-splitting photovoltaic system based on volume holographic lenses (VHL) is designed, fabricated and tested. In spectrum-splitting systems, incident sunlight is divided in spectral bands for optimal conversion by a set of single-junction PV cells that are laterally separated. The VHL spectrum-splitting system in this paper has a form factor similar to conventional silicon PV modules but with higher efficiencies (>30%). Unlike many other spectrum-splitting systems that have been proposed in the past, the system in this work converts both direct and diffuse sunlight while using inexpensive 1-axis tracking systems. The VHL system uses holographic lenses that focus light at a transition wavelength to the boundary between two PV cells. Longer wavelength light is dispersed to the narrow bandgap cell and shorter wavelength light to the wide bandgap cell. A prototype system is designed with silicon and GaAs PV cells. The holographic lenses are fabricated in Covestro Bayfol HX photopolymer by 'stitching' together lens segments through sequential masked exposures. The PV cells and holographic lenses were characterized and the data was used in a raytrace simulation and predicts an improvement in total power output of 15.2% compared to a non-spectrum-splitting reference. A laboratory measurement yielded an improvement in power output of 8.5%.

A la suite de la première démonstration de l'écriture de guide d'onde au sein de verres en 1996 par laser femtoseconde, l'écriture direct par Laser Femtoseconde (Femtoseconde Direct Laser Writing - FLDW) est apparu comme une technique souple pour la fabrication de structure photonique en trois dimensions au sein de matériaux pour l'optique. La thèse a porté sur l'inscription par laser femtoseconde de fonctionnalités optiques au sein de verres. Des éléments diffractifs par modification de l'indice de réfraction et des structures présentant des propriétés de luminescence ou d'optique non linéaire d'ordre deux ont pu être obtenus au sein de matériaux vitreux et étudiés. / Since the first demonstration of femtosecond laser written waveguides in 1996, femtosecond laser direct writing (FLDW) has been providing a versatile means to fabricate embedded 3-D microstructures in transparent materials. The key mechanisms are nonlinear absorption processes that occur when a laser beam is tightly focused into a material and the intensity of the focused beam reaches the range creating enough free electrons to induce structural modification. This dissertation was an attempt to make an improvement on the existing FLDW technique to achieve a reliable fabrication protocol for integrated optical devices involving micro diffractive optical elements and laser-structures exhibiting second order nonlinear optical properties. Relaxation processes of directly-written structures in chalcogenide glasses have been also investigated.

Este trabalho analisou o processo de moldagem por injeção de micro elementos ópticos difrativos usinados em insertos de cobre eletrolítico com ferramenta de diamante com ponta única. Quatro tipos de microestruturas características foram selecionados neste estudo, a saber: lente anesférica, lente de Fresnel, grade de difração (blaze grating) e sensor de frente de onda. A análise da fidelidade de replicação foi feita considerando aspectos dimensionais micrométricos e nanométricos para a microestrutura e acabamento. Um perfilometro óptico e microscópio eletrônico de varredura foram utilizados para avaliar os insertos usinados e as características dos replicados. Uma ferramenta de diamante com geometria especial, com meio raio, foi usada para usinar as características de difração. As superfícies usinadas apresentaram baixo acabamento superficial, na faixa de 16 nm Rms. As simulações numéricas foram realizadas para avaliar o desempenho do processo de moldagem por injeção com polimetilmetacrilato (PMMA), e os resultados foram utilizados para orientar a injeção do polímero. Com base na simulações numéricas as temperaturas do molde e pressões de injeção foram variadas entre 85ºC/130°C e 70 bar/130 bar, respectivamente. A influência destes parâmetros no desempenho do processo de replicação foi analisada. A análise quantitativa da replicação foi feita através de um parâmetro denominado grau de replicação que define a relação entre a altura nominal da microestrutura do inserto e à altura da microestrutura na réplica de polímero. A grade de difração e o sensor de frente de onda apresentaram os melhores níveis de replicação: 98% e 99%, respectivamente. Os resultados experimentais mostraram que o processo de moldagem por injeção é uma técnica viável para replicar com alta qualidade microcaracterísticas de elementos ópticos de difração gerados por torneamento com ferramenta de diamante com ponta única. / This work investigated the injection molding process of micro diffractive optical elements machined on electrolytic copper inserts by single point diamond turning. Four types of microstructure features were selected in this study, namely: aspherical lens, Fresnel lens, blaze grating and the wavefront sensor. The replication fidelity was evaluated in terms of dimensional micrometric features found in the microstructure and the surface finish. An optical profiler and scanning electron microscopy were used to assess the machined inserts and the replicated features. A special geometry diamond tool with half radius was used to machine the diffraction features. The machined surfaces presented very low surface finish in the range of 16 nm Rms. Numerical simulations were carried out to evaluate the performance of the injection molding process with polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), and the results were used to guide the polymer injection. Based on numerical simulations mold temperatures and injection pressures were varied between 85°C/130°C and 70 bar/130 bar, respectively. The influence of these parameters on performance of the replication process was assessed. The quantitative assessement of the replication was made by using a parameter called degree of replication which defines the ratio between the nominal height of the microstructure in the insert and the height of the microstructure in the polymer replica. The blaze grating and the wavefront sensor presented the best degrees of replication: 98% and 99%, respectively. The experimental results showed that injection molding process is a viable technique to replicate high quality micro features of optical diffraction elements generated by single point diamond turning.