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In this work, we study the properties and device applications of MoS2, black phosphorus, MoOx, and NbSe2. We first start with the design, fabrication, and characterization of ultra-high responsivity photodetectors based on mesoscopic multilayer MoS2. The device architecture is comprised of a metal-semiconductor-metal (MSM) photodetector, where Mo was used as the contact metal to suspended MoS2 membranes. The dominant photocurrent mechanism was determined to be the photoconductive effect, while a contribution from the photogating effect was also noted from trap-states that yielded a wide spectral photoresponse from UV-to-IR with an external quantum efficiency (EQE) ~ 104. From time-resolved photocurrent measurements, a fast decay time and response time were obtained with a stream of incoming ON/OFF white light pulses. Another interesting semiconductor 2D material that has attracted special attention due to its small bandgap and ultra-high hole mobility is the black phosphorus. An analysis of the optoelectronic properties and photocurrent generation mechanisms in two-dimensional (2D) multilayer crystallites of black phosphorus (BP) was conducted from 350 K down to cryogenic temperatures using a broad-band white light source. The Mo-BP interface yielded a low Schottky barrier "φ" _"SB" ~ -28.3 meV and a high photoresponsivity R of ~ 2.43 x 105 A/W at a source-drain bias voltage of ~ 0.5 V (300 K, and incident optical power ~ 3.16 μW/cm2). Our report is the first to highlight the empirical use of Mo as a contact metal with BP. From the analysis conducted on the BP devices, the thermally driven photocurrent generation mechanism arising from the photobolometric effect (PBE) dominated the carrier dynamics for T > 181 K since the photocurrent Iph and the bolometric coefficient β undergo a transition in polarity from positive to negative. Our results show the promise of BP to potentially advance thermoelectric and optoelectronic devices stemming from this mono-elemental, direct bandgap 2D van der Waals solid. Another intriguing metallic 2D material is superconducting 2H-NbSe2. Here we present the temperature-dependent Raman spectroscopy and electronic transport on bulk NbSe2, carried out to investigate the scattering mechanisms. We report on the photoresponse of direct probed mesoscopic 2H-NbSe2 as a function of laser energy for lasers at 405 nm, 660 nm, and 1060 nm wavelengths used to irradiate the device, where the modulation from the superconducting-to-normal-state is detected through photomodulation. Additionally, the various oxidation levels of molybdenum oxide have interesting optical and electrical properties as a function of the oxygen vacancy and stoichiometry. The substoichiometric MoOx (2 < x < 3) behaves as a high work function conductor due to its metallic defect band. As a result, one of the potential applications of MoOx is for electrical contacts providing high hole injection or extraction. In this work, we have synthesized MoOx nanosheets via chemical vapor deposition and a four-terminal device was fabricated via e-beam lithography and electronic transport was measured as a function of temperature. Outstanding properties were obtained from our MoOx nanosheets, including a high conductivity of ~ 6,680.3 S cm-1, a superior temperature coefficient of resistance ~ -0.10%, and a high sensitivity based on the bolometric coefficient β of ~ 0.152 mS K-1. In summary, this work pushes the state-of-the-art in enabling 2D van der Waals materials for next-generation high-performance detectors.

The use of optical input/output (I/O) interconnects, in addition to electrical I/Os, is a promising approach for achieving high-bandwidth, chip-to-board communications required for future high-performance gigascale chip-based systems. While numerous efforts are underway to investigate the integration of optoelectronics and silicon microelectronics, virtually no work has been reported relating to testing of such chips. The objective of this research is to explore methods that enable wafer-level testing of gigascale chips having electrical and optical I/O interconnects. A major challenge in achieving this is to develop probe modules which would allow high-precision, temporary interconnection of a multitude of electrical and optical I/Os, in a chip-size area, to automated test equipment. A probe module would need to do this in a rapid, step-and-repeat manner across all the chips on the wafer. In this work, two candidate probe modules were devised, batch-fabricated on Si using microfabrication techniques, and successfully demonstrated. The first probe module consists of compliant electrical probes (10^3 probes/cm^2) fabricated alongside grating-in-waveguide optical probes. The second module consists of micro-opto-electro-mechanical-systems (MOEMS)-based microsocket probes (10^4 probes/cm^2) to interface a chip with polymer pillar-based electrical and optical I/Os. High-density through-wafer interconnects are an essential attribute in both probe substrates for transferring electrical and optical signals to the substrate back-side. Fabrication and characterization of metal-clad, metal-filled, and polymer-filled through-wafer interconnects as well as process integration with probe substrate fabrication are described and numerous possible redistribution schemes are explicated. Chips with optical and electrical I/Os are an emerging technology, and one that test engineers are likely to encounter in the near future. The contributions of this thesis are to help understand and address the issues relating to joint electrical and optical testing during manufacturing.

Fabry-Perot interferometer (FPI) devices are designed based on the electro-optic (EO) activities of nonlinear optical (NLO) polymer materials for tunable optical filters (TOFs) and spatial light modulators (SLMs). The performance of the EO polymer based FPI devices is theoretically modeled with first order approximation on the FPI cavity interface phase dispersion. NLO materials including TCBD coupled hybrid sol-gel, AJL8/amorphous polycarbonate (APC), and AJLS102/APC are incorporated in FPI structures with distributed Bragg reflector mirrors and transparent conducting oxide electrodes for TOFs. High finesse (over 200), low drive voltage (10 dB isolation ratio with 5 V), and fast settling time (about sub-millisecond) are achieved. The physical origin of the large tunabilities is explored and the contributions from EO effect and inverse piezoelectric effect are analyzed. EO polymer SWOHF3ME/APC is employed in FPI devices with simplified structures for SLMs. Modulation beyond megahertz level is achieved with constant modulation ratio from DC frequency to high operation speed. The operation speed can be potentially over gigahertz with improved device and drive circuit design. When the EO polymer based SLM is configured to work at near the resonance band of the NLO material, the spectral tunability is increased due to resonance enhanced EO activity and the SLM performance is significantly improved. The EO polymer based FPI devices can be further optimized and are promising candidates for many optoelectronic applications.

A wide range of applications have been recognized for terahertz radiations. In fact, medical imaging, homeland security screening, very high-speed wireless telecommunications systems and even drug and gas detection are boosting the development of terahertz emitters and receivers. The work of this thesis is among the efforts in that regard. Actual terahertz detectors are suffering many drawbacks, they are bulky, very slow, not very sensitive or operates at non-practical temperatures. Combined with the complexity to realize terahertz emitters, it explains the difficulties of terahertz radiations to ensure market penetration with practicable civil applications. In that regard, we aim to better understand and improve a specific terahertz photodetector: the Terahertz Quantum Well Photodetector. Those devices working principle relies on a photocurrent created by the excitation of electrons from ground states of quantum wells to the continuum under terahertz impinging light. The intensity of the photocurrent is depending on the intensity of the radiation received by the device. The device active region is made of a multiple quantum wells GaAs/AlGaAs system. By changing the design of the device, that is the thicknesses of each layer, the aluminum fraction of the doping concentration, we can modify its performances. Documented and commented Matlab functions and routines have been implemented in order to simulate a given structure and scripts have been written to find the optimum parameters for a target absorption frequency. Our model has been verified by comparison with experimental data reported in the literature. Based on our model, we systematically study the impact of the active region and contact parameters on the device performances. In addition, innovative designs are proposed in order to reduce the undesirable dark current and thus increase the detectivity. They benefits from many-body effects, effects that are usually a constraint on the design. To our knowledge this is the first time those effects are used to realize innovative designs and increase the performances of quantum well infrared photodetectors. Finally we expose other designs that have been tested in the infrared domain with QWIP and adapt them to the terahertz range. In particular, we propose a quantum cascade photodetector, a double barrier bound-to-miniband and a phonon-assisted band to miniband structures.

Este trabalho tem como objetivo a confecção e caracterização de guias de onda de GeO2-PbO e TeO2-ZnO. Os guias de onda foram produzidos a partir de filmes finos e vidros usando diferentes procedimentos. Os filmes foram produzidos usando a técnica de RF \"magnetron sputtering\" e foram caracterizados por meio de várias análises. Em especial, a microscopia eletrônica de varredura foi indispensável para definição dos melhores processos para a construção dos guias de onda, o maior desafio do trabalho, pois não havia na literatura trabalhos desta natureza com os materiais em questão. Os guias nos filmes foram construídos sobre substratos de silício, utilizando-se os processos convencionais de microeletrônica: limpeza química, oxidação térmica, deposição por \"sputtering\", litografia óptica e corrosões úmidas e por plasma. Os diversos testes realizados com estes processos permitiram encontrar as melhores condições (corrosão por plasma de SF6, resiste AZ-5214 e remoção com microstripper 2001) para a implementação de guias de onda \"rib\" com largura de 1 à 10 m usando profundidades de 70 nm para o guia de GeO2-PbO e de 90 nm para o guia de TeO2-ZnO. Os guias de ondas rib de PbO-GeO2 e TeO2-ZnO foram analisados opticamente quanto às perdas por propagação. Ambos apresentaram guiamento multimodo (TE) e os valores de atenuação experimentais obtidos foram de 2,2 dB/cm para o guia de GeO2-PbO e 1,5 dB/cm para o guia de TeO2-ZnO em 633 nm. Estes valores dependem da rugosidade superficial e lateral dos guias de ondas, da uniformidade dos filmes empregados e da diferença entre os índices de refração. Realizamos simulações do guiamento óptico em estruturas planares e tipo rib, para obter as atenuações no guiamento. Os resultados calculados foram compatíveis aos encontrados experimentalmente Os guias de onda feitos com vidros de GeO2-PbO-Ga2O3 e TeO2-GeO2-PbO utilizaram a técnica de escrita direta de laser de femtosegundos. Os melhores parâmetros de escrita dos guias produzidos foram para a velocidade de 0,05 mm/s e potência do laser de 10W. Para esta condição, o vidro de TeO2-GeO2-PbO apresentou perdas de 6,8 dB (para comprimento de 0,75 cm) e o vidro de GeO2-PbO-Ga2O3, 7,0 dB (para comprimento de 0,9 cm), em 633 nm. Este trabalho apresentou o desenvolvimento da tecnologia adequada para a produção de guias de onda formados por novos materiais, teluretos e germanatos, promissores para a optoeletrônica e fotônica. / The objective of this work is the production and characterization of GeO2-PbO and TeO2-ZnO waveguides. The waveguides were produced using thin films and glasses by means of different procedures. The films were produced using the RF magnetron sputtering method and characterized by a variety of techniques. In particular, scanning electron microscopy was essential to optimize the processes involved in producing the waveguides. This was one the fundamental challenge of this work since there are no reports in the literature describing these processes on such materials. The thin film waveguides were produced on top of a silicon substrate using conventional microelectronic procedures: chemical cleaning, thermal oxidation, sputtering deposition, optical lithography and wet chemical corrosion or plasma etching. Several tests performed using these processes enabled the determination of the best condition (SF6 etching, AZ-5214 resist and resist removal with microstripper 2001) for the implementation of rib waveguides with 1 to 10 m width and average depth of 70 nm for GeO2-PbO and 90 nm for TeO2-ZnO. For the rib waveguides of PbO-GeO2 and TeO2-ZnO the propagation losses were optically measured. Both systems presented a multimode (TE) guiding with attenuation values of 2.2 dB/cm for PbO-GeO2 and 1.5 dB/cm for TeO2-ZnO at 633 nm. These values depend heavily on the surface and lateral roughness, on the uniformity of the films and on the difference between the refractive index. We conducted computer simulations of optical guiding in planar and rib structures in order to estimate the guiding losses. The calculated values were compatible with the experimental results. Glasses waveguides of GeO2-PbO-Ga2O3 and TeO2-GeO2-PbO were produced using the direct writing technique with a femtosecond laser. The structures were analyzed optically in order to determine the overall propagation losses. The optimized writing parameters were 0.05 mm/s speed with 10 W laser power. Using these parameters we obtained for the propagation losses at 633 nm, 6.8 dB (for 0.75 cm length) and 7.0 dB (for 0.9 cm length) for TeO2-GeO2-PbO and GeO2-PbO-Ga2O3, respectively. This work presents the development of an adequate technology for the production of waveguides composed of new materials with promising applications for optoelectronics and photonics.

Este trabalho tem como objetivo a confecção e caracterização de guias de onda de GeO2-PbO e TeO2-ZnO. Os guias de onda foram produzidos a partir de filmes finos e vidros usando diferentes procedimentos. Os filmes foram produzidos usando a técnica de RF \"magnetron sputtering\" e foram caracterizados por meio de várias análises. Em especial, a microscopia eletrônica de varredura foi indispensável para definição dos melhores processos para a construção dos guias de onda, o maior desafio do trabalho, pois não havia na literatura trabalhos desta natureza com os materiais em questão. Os guias nos filmes foram construídos sobre substratos de silício, utilizando-se os processos convencionais de microeletrônica: limpeza química, oxidação térmica, deposição por \"sputtering\", litografia óptica e corrosões úmidas e por plasma. Os diversos testes realizados com estes processos permitiram encontrar as melhores condições (corrosão por plasma de SF6, resiste AZ-5214 e remoção com microstripper 2001) para a implementação de guias de onda \"rib\" com largura de 1 à 10 m usando profundidades de 70 nm para o guia de GeO2-PbO e de 90 nm para o guia de TeO2-ZnO. Os guias de ondas rib de PbO-GeO2 e TeO2-ZnO foram analisados opticamente quanto às perdas por propagação. Ambos apresentaram guiamento multimodo (TE) e os valores de atenuação experimentais obtidos foram de 2,2 dB/cm para o guia de GeO2-PbO e 1,5 dB/cm para o guia de TeO2-ZnO em 633 nm. Estes valores dependem da rugosidade superficial e lateral dos guias de ondas, da uniformidade dos filmes empregados e da diferença entre os índices de refração. Realizamos simulações do guiamento óptico em estruturas planares e tipo rib, para obter as atenuações no guiamento. Os resultados calculados foram compatíveis aos encontrados experimentalmente Os guias de onda feitos com vidros de GeO2-PbO-Ga2O3 e TeO2-GeO2-PbO utilizaram a técnica de escrita direta de laser de femtosegundos. Os melhores parâmetros de escrita dos guias produzidos foram para a velocidade de 0,05 mm/s e potência do laser de 10W. Para esta condição, o vidro de TeO2-GeO2-PbO apresentou perdas de 6,8 dB (para comprimento de 0,75 cm) e o vidro de GeO2-PbO-Ga2O3, 7,0 dB (para comprimento de 0,9 cm), em 633 nm. Este trabalho apresentou o desenvolvimento da tecnologia adequada para a produção de guias de onda formados por novos materiais, teluretos e germanatos, promissores para a optoeletrônica e fotônica. / The objective of this work is the production and characterization of GeO2-PbO and TeO2-ZnO waveguides. The waveguides were produced using thin films and glasses by means of different procedures. The films were produced using the RF magnetron sputtering method and characterized by a variety of techniques. In particular, scanning electron microscopy was essential to optimize the processes involved in producing the waveguides. This was one the fundamental challenge of this work since there are no reports in the literature describing these processes on such materials. The thin film waveguides were produced on top of a silicon substrate using conventional microelectronic procedures: chemical cleaning, thermal oxidation, sputtering deposition, optical lithography and wet chemical corrosion or plasma etching. Several tests performed using these processes enabled the determination of the best condition (SF6 etching, AZ-5214 resist and resist removal with microstripper 2001) for the implementation of rib waveguides with 1 to 10 m width and average depth of 70 nm for GeO2-PbO and 90 nm for TeO2-ZnO. For the rib waveguides of PbO-GeO2 and TeO2-ZnO the propagation losses were optically measured. Both systems presented a multimode (TE) guiding with attenuation values of 2.2 dB/cm for PbO-GeO2 and 1.5 dB/cm for TeO2-ZnO at 633 nm. These values depend heavily on the surface and lateral roughness, on the uniformity of the films and on the difference between the refractive index. We conducted computer simulations of optical guiding in planar and rib structures in order to estimate the guiding losses. The calculated values were compatible with the experimental results. Glasses waveguides of GeO2-PbO-Ga2O3 and TeO2-GeO2-PbO were produced using the direct writing technique with a femtosecond laser. The structures were analyzed optically in order to determine the overall propagation losses. The optimized writing parameters were 0.05 mm/s speed with 10 W laser power. Using these parameters we obtained for the propagation losses at 633 nm, 6.8 dB (for 0.75 cm length) and 7.0 dB (for 0.9 cm length) for TeO2-GeO2-PbO and GeO2-PbO-Ga2O3, respectively. This work presents the development of an adequate technology for the production of waveguides composed of new materials with promising applications for optoelectronics and photonics.

This thesis puts focus on the technological challenges for Wavelength Division Multiplexed Passive Optical Network (WDM-PON) implementation, and presents novel semiconductor optical devices for deployment at the optical network unit (ONU). The first-ever reported L-band Reflective semiconductor optical amplifier (RSOA) is presented based on InP-base material. A theoretical model is developed to estimate the optical gain and the saturation power of this device compared to a conventional SOA. Experiments on this device design show long-range telecom wavelength operation, with polarization-independent gain of greater than 20 dB, and low saturation output power of 0 dBm suitable for PON applications. Next, the effect of the amplified spontaneous emission noise of RSOA devices on WDM-PON system is investigated. It is shown through theoretical modeling and simulations that the RSOA noise combined with receiver noise statistics increase probability of error, and induce considerable power penalties to the WDM-PON system. By improving the coupling efficiencies, and by distributing more current flow to the input of these devices, steps can be taken to improve device noise characteristics. Further, in spectrally-spliced WDM-PONs deploying RSOAs, the effect of AWG filter shape on system performance is investigated. Simulation modeling and experiments show that deployment of Flat-band AWGs is critical for reducing the probability of error caused by AWG spectral shape filtering. Flat-band athermal AWGs in comparison to Gaussin-shape counterparts satisfy the maximum acceptable error probability requirements, and reduce the power penalty associated with filtering effect. In addition, detuning between two AWG center wavelengths impose further power penalties to the WDM-PON system. In the last section of this thesis, motivated by RSOA device system limitations, a novel injection-locked Fabry-Perot (IL-FP) device is presented which consists of a gain section monolithically integrated with a phase section. The gain section provides locking of one FP mode to a seed source wavelength, while the phase modulator allows for adjusting the wavelength of the internal modes by tuning bias current to maintain mode-locking. This device counters any mode drifts caused by temperature variations, and allows for cooler-less operation over a wide range of currents. The devices and the performance metrics subsequently allow for a hybrid integration platform on a silicon substrate and integrate many functionalities like reflective modulator with thin film dielectric filter and receiver on a single chip for deployment at the user-end of future-proof low cost WDM-PONs.

The use of optical fiber is of great interest in developing extensive, high-speed networking infrastructures. Optical fiber provide many advantages over traditional copper cables and wireless links. Among them are high security, low electromagnetic interference, extremely low loss and high bandwidths, light weight and manageability. However, the very small wavelengths associated with optical radiation requires very small waveguide dimensions. Waveguide dimension of single mode fiber (SMF) are < 10µm, resulting in relatively poor yield in device manufacturing. For residential and other last-mile networks topologies, cost constraints limit the appeal of SMF. Multimode fiber (MMF) allow for less restrictive manufacturing tolerances; however, the distortion that results from the dispersion in propagation among the many modes can be prohibitively large for data rates approaching and exceeding 1 Gb/s. To improve the deployability of MMF, a method of dispersion compensation that maintains the ease-of-use characteristic of MMF is required This dissertation demonstrates an opto-electronic method of dispersion compensation by the use of a multisegment photodetector. It is shown the modes of the fiber can be seperated such that when the individual photodetector signals are combined, the resulting temporal response of the fiber link is improved from that of a conventional fiber link. This method is extremely robust to system variation and is independent of data rate and transmission format, allowing it to be employed in a wide variety of optical links. More importantly, the implementation demonstrated is comparable, in simplicity and alignment tolerance, to a conventional photodetector. System performance is shown using both temporal and frequency response as well as real bit error rate and eye diagram measurements.

The ever-increasing need for higher bandwidth and density is one of the motivations for extensive research on planar optoelectronic structures on printed circuit board (PCB) substrates. Among these applications, optical interconnects have received considerable attention in the last decade. Several optical interconnect techniques, such as free space, guided wave, board level and fiber array interconnects, have been introduced for system level applications. In all planar optoelectronic systems, optical waveguides are crucial elements that facilitate signal routing. Low propagation loss, high reliability and manufacturability are among the requirements of polymer optical waveguides and polymer passive devices on PCB substrates for practical applications. Besides fabrication requirements, reliable characterization tools are needed to accurately and nondestructively measure important guiding properties, such as waveguide propagation loss. In three-dimensional (3D) fully embedded board-level optical interconnects, another key challenge is to realize efficient optical coupling between in-plane waveguides and out-of-plane laser/detector devices. Driven by these motivations, the research presented in this thesis focuses on some fundamental studies of optical interconnects for PCB substrates, e.g., developing low-loss optical polymer waveguides with integrated efficient out-of-plane couplers for optical interconnects on printed circuit board substrates, as well as the demonstration of a novel free-space optical interconnect system by using a volume holographic thin film. Firstly, the theoretical and experimental investigations on the limitations of using mercury i-line ultraviolet (UV) proximity photolithography have been carried out, and the metallization techniques for fine copper line formation are explored. Then, a new type of low-loss polymer waveguides (i.e., capped waveguide) is demonstrated by using contact photolithography with considerable performance improvement over the conventional waveguides. To characterize the propagation properties of planar optical waveguides, a reliable, nondestructive, and real-time technique is presented based on accurately imaging the scattered light from the waveguide using a sensitive charge coupled device (CCD) camera that has a built-in integration functionality. To provide surface normal light coupling between waveguides and optoelectronic devices for optical interconnects, a simple method is presented here to integrate 45° total internal reflection micro-mirrors with polymer optical waveguides by an improved tilted beam photolithography (with the aid of de-ionized water) on PCBs. A new technique is developed for a thin layer of metal coating on the micro-mirrors to achieve higher reflection and coupling efficiency (i.e., above 90%). The combination of the capped waveguide technique and the improved tilted UV exposure technique along with a hard reusable metal mask for metal deposition eliminates the usage of the traditional lift-off process, greatly simplifies the process, and reduces fabrication cost without sacrificing the coating quality. For the study of free-space optical interconnects, a simple system is presented by employing a single thin-film polymeric volume holographic element. One 2-spherical-beam hologram is used to link each point light source with the corresponding photodetector. An 8-channel free-space optical interconnect system with high link efficiency is demonstrated by using a single volume holographic element where 8 holograms are recorded.