Country of origin (COO) effect is a well-researched topic in the international marketing literature. It is well recognized that consumers are biased against imports, due to consumer ethnocentrism or patriotism tendency. However, the research on COO effects also suggests that consumers form certain image of origin countries (COO image) and favorable image, be it associated with the countries, their people, or general product quality, improves the evaluation and acceptance of foreign imports. The publications related to COO effects which focus on consumer durables are abundant. However, the contrasting COO effects on food products are much less investigated. This study surveys British consumers’ preference for domestic versus imported beef. Like previous studies, a strong preference for domestic beef was found. Furthermore, individual characteristics which potentially influence such preference were examined. Using scores on consumer patriotism and COO image perception as interacting individual characteristics in the choice models, it was found that stronger preference against imports was linked to higher level of the respondents perceived patriotic sentiment toward their home country, while better COO image improved the likelihood of the foreign country’s beef being selected. Marketing and policy implications are discussed.

O vinho possui uma composição química complexa que, além de água e etanol, contém grande variedade de substâncias orgânicas e inorgânicas. Esta composição é influenciada por diversos fatores correspondentes à área específica de produção, como características do solo, condições ambientais, cultivar da uva e o processo de elaboração do vinho. Assim, o estudo dos elementos minerais apresenta grande interesse, sendo utilizado, aliado a ferramentas de análise estatística multivariada, na diferenciação de vinhos de acordo com sua origem geográfica. Neste trabalho são apresentados dois estudos que caracterizaram e diferenciaram vinhos pela sua composição mineral. O primeiro teve por objetivo caracterizar e diferenciar vinhosbase (cvs. Chardonnay e Pinot Noir) provenientes da Serra do Nordeste e Serra do Sudeste do Rio Grande do Sul através de parâmetros físico-químicos e elementos minerais combinada com técnicas de análise multivariada. O segundo teve por objetivo caracterizar e diferenciar amostras de vinhos espumantes produzidos no Brasil, Argentina, Chile, Espanha e França a partir da composição mineral aliada a ferramentas de estatística multivariada. Os parâmetros físico-químicos foram avaliados por espectrofotometria no infravermelho e os elementos minerais por espectrometria de emissão ótica com plasma indutivamente acoplado (ICP-OES). Na caracterização e diferenciação dos vinhos-base os elementos encontrados em maiores concentrações foram o K, Mg e Ca, e em menores concentrações o Ba, Fe, Sr e Al. A Análise de Componentes Principais (ACP) mostrou que há uma tendência natural de separação entre os vinhos-base da Serra do Nordeste e Serra do Sudeste. Através da Análise Discriminante (AD) obteve-se para os vinhos-base da cv. Chardonnay cinco descritores químicos (Mg, Ca, Mn, pH e grau alcoólico) e para a cv. Pinot Noir seis descritores (B, Mn, Fe, Na, pH, acidez volátil) com capacidade de distinguir as amostras de vinhos-base de acordo com a origem geográfica. Os elementos Mn e Mg parecem ser os elementos com maior capacidade de discriminação entre os vinhos-base da Serra do Nordeste e Serra do Sudeste. No trabalho de caracterização e diferenciação dos vinhos espumantes, em todas as amostras o elemento K foi encontrado em maiores concentrações, e em menores concentrações os elementos Ba, Cu e Li. A Análise de Agrupamento Hierárquico (AAH) e a ACP demonstraram que há uma tendência natural de separação entre os vinhos espumantes do Brasil e Argentina daqueles dos outros 3 países. Através do emprego da AD obteve-se uma correta classificação de 100, 95, 84, 90, e 83 % para os vinhos espumantes do Brasil, Argentina, Chile, França e Espanha, respectivamente. Os elementos Mn, Li, Sr e Mg foram encontrados como melhores descritores químicos para a discriminação dos vinhos espumantes destes cinco países. / Wine presents a complex chemical composition containing, besides water and ethanol, a large variety of organic and inorganic compounds. This composition is influenced by several factors concerning to specific production area such as soil characteristics, environmental conditions, grape cultivar and winemaking practices. The study of mineral elements presents high interest, being used, when analyzed by multivariate statistics, for wine differentiation according to its geographical origin. Two studies characterizing and differentiating wines by their mineral composition are presented in this work. First study aimed to characterize and differentiate base wines (cvs. Chardonnay and Pinot Noir) from Serra do Nordeste and Serra do Sudeste of Rio Grande do Sul by physicochemical parameters and mineral elements analysis followed by multivariate statistics. Second study aimed to characterize and differentiate samples of sparkling wines produced in Brazil, Argentina, Chile, Spain and France by mineral composition analysis followed by multivariate statistics. Physicochemical parameters were evaluated by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). In characterizing and differentiating base wines, elements found in higher and lower concentrations were, respectively, K, Mg, Ca and Ba, Fe, Sr, Al. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) showed that there is a natural separation tendency between wines from Serra do Nordeste and Serra do Sudeste. Five chemical descriptors were obtained by Discriminant Analysis (DA) for base wine from cv. Chardonnay (Mg, Ca, Mn, pH and alcohol) and six descriptors for base wine from cv, Pinot Noir (B, Mn, Fe, Na, pH and volatile acidity). These descriptors were capable of classify samples of base wines according to geographical origin. Mn and Mg elements seem to be the elements with higher discrimination capacity between base wines from Serra do Nordeste and Serra do Sudeste. In sparkling wines characterization and differentiation, element K was found in higher concentration in all samples and Ba, Cu and Li were found in lower concentrations. Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA) and PCA showed that there is a natural separation tendency between sparkling wines from Brazil and Argentina and those from Chile, Spain and France. A classification of 100, 95, 84, 90 and 83 % was obtained by DA for sparkling wines produced in Brazil, Argentina, Chile, France and Spain, respectively. Elements Mn, Li, Sr and Mg were found as the best chemical descriptors for discriminating sparkling wines from these five countries.

O vinho possui uma composição química complexa que, além de água e etanol, contém grande variedade de substâncias orgânicas e inorgânicas. Esta composição é influenciada por diversos fatores correspondentes à área específica de produção, como características do solo, condições ambientais, cultivar da uva e o processo de elaboração do vinho. Assim, o estudo dos elementos minerais apresenta grande interesse, sendo utilizado, aliado a ferramentas de análise estatística multivariada, na diferenciação de vinhos de acordo com sua origem geográfica. Neste trabalho são apresentados dois estudos que caracterizaram e diferenciaram vinhos pela sua composição mineral. O primeiro teve por objetivo caracterizar e diferenciar vinhosbase (cvs. Chardonnay e Pinot Noir) provenientes da Serra do Nordeste e Serra do Sudeste do Rio Grande do Sul através de parâmetros físico-químicos e elementos minerais combinada com técnicas de análise multivariada. O segundo teve por objetivo caracterizar e diferenciar amostras de vinhos espumantes produzidos no Brasil, Argentina, Chile, Espanha e França a partir da composição mineral aliada a ferramentas de estatística multivariada. Os parâmetros físico-químicos foram avaliados por espectrofotometria no infravermelho e os elementos minerais por espectrometria de emissão ótica com plasma indutivamente acoplado (ICP-OES). Na caracterização e diferenciação dos vinhos-base os elementos encontrados em maiores concentrações foram o K, Mg e Ca, e em menores concentrações o Ba, Fe, Sr e Al. A Análise de Componentes Principais (ACP) mostrou que há uma tendência natural de separação entre os vinhos-base da Serra do Nordeste e Serra do Sudeste. Através da Análise Discriminante (AD) obteve-se para os vinhos-base da cv. Chardonnay cinco descritores químicos (Mg, Ca, Mn, pH e grau alcoólico) e para a cv. Pinot Noir seis descritores (B, Mn, Fe, Na, pH, acidez volátil) com capacidade de distinguir as amostras de vinhos-base de acordo com a origem geográfica. Os elementos Mn e Mg parecem ser os elementos com maior capacidade de discriminação entre os vinhos-base da Serra do Nordeste e Serra do Sudeste. No trabalho de caracterização e diferenciação dos vinhos espumantes, em todas as amostras o elemento K foi encontrado em maiores concentrações, e em menores concentrações os elementos Ba, Cu e Li. A Análise de Agrupamento Hierárquico (AAH) e a ACP demonstraram que há uma tendência natural de separação entre os vinhos espumantes do Brasil e Argentina daqueles dos outros 3 países. Através do emprego da AD obteve-se uma correta classificação de 100, 95, 84, 90, e 83 % para os vinhos espumantes do Brasil, Argentina, Chile, França e Espanha, respectivamente. Os elementos Mn, Li, Sr e Mg foram encontrados como melhores descritores químicos para a discriminação dos vinhos espumantes destes cinco países. / Wine presents a complex chemical composition containing, besides water and ethanol, a large variety of organic and inorganic compounds. This composition is influenced by several factors concerning to specific production area such as soil characteristics, environmental conditions, grape cultivar and winemaking practices. The study of mineral elements presents high interest, being used, when analyzed by multivariate statistics, for wine differentiation according to its geographical origin. Two studies characterizing and differentiating wines by their mineral composition are presented in this work. First study aimed to characterize and differentiate base wines (cvs. Chardonnay and Pinot Noir) from Serra do Nordeste and Serra do Sudeste of Rio Grande do Sul by physicochemical parameters and mineral elements analysis followed by multivariate statistics. Second study aimed to characterize and differentiate samples of sparkling wines produced in Brazil, Argentina, Chile, Spain and France by mineral composition analysis followed by multivariate statistics. Physicochemical parameters were evaluated by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). In characterizing and differentiating base wines, elements found in higher and lower concentrations were, respectively, K, Mg, Ca and Ba, Fe, Sr, Al. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) showed that there is a natural separation tendency between wines from Serra do Nordeste and Serra do Sudeste. Five chemical descriptors were obtained by Discriminant Analysis (DA) for base wine from cv. Chardonnay (Mg, Ca, Mn, pH and alcohol) and six descriptors for base wine from cv, Pinot Noir (B, Mn, Fe, Na, pH and volatile acidity). These descriptors were capable of classify samples of base wines according to geographical origin. Mn and Mg elements seem to be the elements with higher discrimination capacity between base wines from Serra do Nordeste and Serra do Sudeste. In sparkling wines characterization and differentiation, element K was found in higher concentration in all samples and Ba, Cu and Li were found in lower concentrations. Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA) and PCA showed that there is a natural separation tendency between sparkling wines from Brazil and Argentina and those from Chile, Spain and France. A classification of 100, 95, 84, 90 and 83 % was obtained by DA for sparkling wines produced in Brazil, Argentina, Chile, France and Spain, respectively. Elements Mn, Li, Sr and Mg were found as the best chemical descriptors for discriminating sparkling wines from these five countries.

O vinho possui uma composição química complexa que, além de água e etanol, contém grande variedade de substâncias orgânicas e inorgânicas. Esta composição é influenciada por diversos fatores correspondentes à área específica de produção, como características do solo, condições ambientais, cultivar da uva e o processo de elaboração do vinho. Assim, o estudo dos elementos minerais apresenta grande interesse, sendo utilizado, aliado a ferramentas de análise estatística multivariada, na diferenciação de vinhos de acordo com sua origem geográfica. Neste trabalho são apresentados dois estudos que caracterizaram e diferenciaram vinhos pela sua composição mineral. O primeiro teve por objetivo caracterizar e diferenciar vinhosbase (cvs. Chardonnay e Pinot Noir) provenientes da Serra do Nordeste e Serra do Sudeste do Rio Grande do Sul através de parâmetros físico-químicos e elementos minerais combinada com técnicas de análise multivariada. O segundo teve por objetivo caracterizar e diferenciar amostras de vinhos espumantes produzidos no Brasil, Argentina, Chile, Espanha e França a partir da composição mineral aliada a ferramentas de estatística multivariada. Os parâmetros físico-químicos foram avaliados por espectrofotometria no infravermelho e os elementos minerais por espectrometria de emissão ótica com plasma indutivamente acoplado (ICP-OES). Na caracterização e diferenciação dos vinhos-base os elementos encontrados em maiores concentrações foram o K, Mg e Ca, e em menores concentrações o Ba, Fe, Sr e Al. A Análise de Componentes Principais (ACP) mostrou que há uma tendência natural de separação entre os vinhos-base da Serra do Nordeste e Serra do Sudeste. Através da Análise Discriminante (AD) obteve-se para os vinhos-base da cv. Chardonnay cinco descritores químicos (Mg, Ca, Mn, pH e grau alcoólico) e para a cv. Pinot Noir seis descritores (B, Mn, Fe, Na, pH, acidez volátil) com capacidade de distinguir as amostras de vinhos-base de acordo com a origem geográfica. Os elementos Mn e Mg parecem ser os elementos com maior capacidade de discriminação entre os vinhos-base da Serra do Nordeste e Serra do Sudeste. No trabalho de caracterização e diferenciação dos vinhos espumantes, em todas as amostras o elemento K foi encontrado em maiores concentrações, e em menores concentrações os elementos Ba, Cu e Li. A Análise de Agrupamento Hierárquico (AAH) e a ACP demonstraram que há uma tendência natural de separação entre os vinhos espumantes do Brasil e Argentina daqueles dos outros 3 países. Através do emprego da AD obteve-se uma correta classificação de 100, 95, 84, 90, e 83 % para os vinhos espumantes do Brasil, Argentina, Chile, França e Espanha, respectivamente. Os elementos Mn, Li, Sr e Mg foram encontrados como melhores descritores químicos para a discriminação dos vinhos espumantes destes cinco países. / Wine presents a complex chemical composition containing, besides water and ethanol, a large variety of organic and inorganic compounds. This composition is influenced by several factors concerning to specific production area such as soil characteristics, environmental conditions, grape cultivar and winemaking practices. The study of mineral elements presents high interest, being used, when analyzed by multivariate statistics, for wine differentiation according to its geographical origin. Two studies characterizing and differentiating wines by their mineral composition are presented in this work. First study aimed to characterize and differentiate base wines (cvs. Chardonnay and Pinot Noir) from Serra do Nordeste and Serra do Sudeste of Rio Grande do Sul by physicochemical parameters and mineral elements analysis followed by multivariate statistics. Second study aimed to characterize and differentiate samples of sparkling wines produced in Brazil, Argentina, Chile, Spain and France by mineral composition analysis followed by multivariate statistics. Physicochemical parameters were evaluated by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). In characterizing and differentiating base wines, elements found in higher and lower concentrations were, respectively, K, Mg, Ca and Ba, Fe, Sr, Al. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) showed that there is a natural separation tendency between wines from Serra do Nordeste and Serra do Sudeste. Five chemical descriptors were obtained by Discriminant Analysis (DA) for base wine from cv. Chardonnay (Mg, Ca, Mn, pH and alcohol) and six descriptors for base wine from cv, Pinot Noir (B, Mn, Fe, Na, pH and volatile acidity). These descriptors were capable of classify samples of base wines according to geographical origin. Mn and Mg elements seem to be the elements with higher discrimination capacity between base wines from Serra do Nordeste and Serra do Sudeste. In sparkling wines characterization and differentiation, element K was found in higher concentration in all samples and Ba, Cu and Li were found in lower concentrations. Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA) and PCA showed that there is a natural separation tendency between sparkling wines from Brazil and Argentina and those from Chile, Spain and France. A classification of 100, 95, 84, 90 and 83 % was obtained by DA for sparkling wines produced in Brazil, Argentina, Chile, France and Spain, respectively. Elements Mn, Li, Sr and Mg were found as the best chemical descriptors for discriminating sparkling wines from these five countries.

Spatial interaction models of the gravity type are widely used to describe origin-destination flows. They draw attention to three types of variables to explain variation in spatial interactions across geographic space: variables that characterize the origin region of interaction, variables that characterize the destination region of interaction, and variables that measure the separation between origin and destination regions. A violation of standard minimal assumptions for least squares estimation may be associated with two problems: spatial autocorrelation within the residuals, and spatial autocorrelation within explanatory variables. This paper compares a spatial econometric solution with the spatial statistical Moran eigenvector spatial filtering solution to accounting for spatial autocorrelation within model residuals. An example using patent citation data that capture knowledge flows across 257 European regions serves to illustrate the application of the two approaches.

The Korean Wave has taken the world by storm and Korean beauty (K-beauty) has in extension to this become a global phenomena. K-beauty has reached this popularity with the help of authentic and natural ingredients and a combination between tradition and modernity creating a competitive advantage on the market. Despite this popularity a lack of research has been identified on how the “​Made in Korea”​ label affects consumer’s perception of Korean products and in specific K-beauty products. The current study addressed this opportunity in examining how consumers perceive K-beauty products in addition to country-of-origin affects their purchase intention. To examine this a qualitative approach was taken consisting of 11 email interviews with millennial women residing in Sweden. The empirical data derived from the interviews was divided into four themes (1) Made in Korea, (2) Image, (3) Quality and (4) Effect. The findings were then analyzed in regards to the country-of-origin effect (COE) and previous research on the topic. The results identify two main attributes as driving factors in consumer perception of K-beauty products on the Swedish market. These two attributes are image and quality. Korea was in this study found to carry a strong cognitive country image (CCI) and is as a result perceived to be on the forefront of the beauty industry creating an attraction towards Korean products. Although K-beauty is found to be driven by the CCI a connection to the Korean Wave and an affective country image (ACI) is found creating a separation in the country image. This was further found to suggest that the Korean Wave facilitates the spread of Korean culture through all Korean products. Future research directions are additionally discussed.

Svenska varumärken i allmänhet och svenska modevarumärken i synnerhet har en god ställning på den globala marknaden. Som en konsekvens av detta väljer flera svenska modeföretag att marknadsföra sina varumärken genom att betona sitt svenska ursprung. Detta är vad som inom marknadsföring benämns som Country-of-Origin. Utlandsarbete har tidigare associerats med negativa aspekter så som kulturella konflikter och anpassningsproblem, men även positivt betonade aspekter som ökad produktivitet och ökad nivå av kreativitet. Denna studie har som syfte att undersöka hur svenska modedesigners som arbetar utomlands påverkas i sitt arbete av att ha Sverige som ursprungsland. Studien undersöker om svenska modedesigners likt svenska modeföretag nyttjar sin ursprungslandsidentitet för att skapa framgångar, hur de påverkas av sitt ursprungsland i form av fördelar, nackdelar, förväntningar och fördomar, samt vilken uppfattning de har av innebörden av att lyckas med sitt arbete inom modedesignbranschen i utlandet. De teorier som studien utgår ifrån är Country-of-Origin, Kulturkapitalsteori samt Psychological Contract Theory. Studien utgår från kvalitativa intervjustudier där fem svenska modedesigners verksamma i fem olika länder besvarat intervjufrågor i både strukturerat och semi-strukturerat format. Efter analys av resultaten i förhållande till relevanta teorier och tidigare forskning kommer studien till slutsatsen att det inte finns någon delad tydlig syn mellan svenska modedesigners i utlandet gällande innebörden med att lyckas med sitt arbete, då en mängd olika faktorer både inom den direkta arbetsplatsen och utanför benämns som orsaker bakom ett lyckat arbete. Utöver detta nås slutsatsen att svenska modedesigners i utlandet inte aktivt anser sig använda sin ursprungslandsidentitet för att lyckas i sitt arbete, men att de upplever särskilda förväntningar samt vissa fördelar med att ha Sverige som ursprungsland. / Swedish brands in general and Swedish fashion brands in particular hold a strong position on the global market. As a result of this many Swedish fashion companies choose to market their brands by emphasizing their Swedish origin. This is commonly known as Country-of-Origin within the field of marketing. Working abroad has often been associated with negative aspects such as cultural conflicts and integration issues, but also positive aspects such as increased productivity and increased levels of creativity. The purpose of this study is to examine how Swedish fashion designers working abroad are impacted in their work by having Sweden as their country of origin. The study examines if Swedish fashion designers utilize their country of origin in a way alike Swedish fashion companies in order to establish success, how they are impacted by their country of origin in terms of benefits, disadvantages, expectations and stereotypes, and also how they perceive the meaning of the term success in terms of working abroad as a Swedish fashion designer. The study utilizes Country-of-Origin, Cultural Capital Theory as well as Psychological Contract Theory to construct its theoretical base. The study is based on qualitative interviews where five Swedish fashion designers working in five different countries answer questions in both a structured and a semi-structured format. After analyzing the results using relevant theories and previous research the conclusion that there is no unified and commonly agreed opinion of what constitutes success while working abroad as a Swedish fashion designer is reached. This is due to the fashion designers expressing a variety of different factors both within and outside of the direct workplace when defining success. In addition to this the conclusion that Swedish fashion designers abroad do not claim to actively utilize their country of origin in order to be successful in their work, and that they experience certain expectations and some benefits because of their country of origin is reached.

Thesis (MBA)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / Almost every geographical wine producing area has a generic marketing organisation in the form of a wine route organisation or similar organisation that aspires to create a favourable perception of their area in the minds of wine consumers. In their efforts to try and escape the growing commoditising of wines, wine producers recently intensified their efforts to differentiate themselves from other offers by increasingly certifying more wine as wine from a specific geographical area, launching competitions that embrace terroir as the defining factor for quality and increasing the number of demarcated areas. It was the purpose of this study to examine whether the South African consumer assigns a high degree of relevance to the certification of origin as an influencing factor when purchasing wine. As a starting point, a literature study was conducted to establish the current state of knowledge regarding the relevance of certification of origin of wine in wine marketing. The literature review also provided the framework for designing a survey conducted among South African wine consumers. The data gathered via an online questionnaire was analysed by employing both descriptive and inferential statistical methods. The analysis showed that certification of origin of wine plays a secondary role in influencing consumers when faced with a purchasing decision on its own. However, as part of the regional composite variable, which consists of variety, region and wine style, it plays a major role in influencing consumers (McCutcheon, Bruwer & Li, 2009: 229). In accordance with other studies conducted among South African wine consumers (Von Arnim, 2008: 58), the specific wine variety emerged as the most important factor influencing consumers. It was also found that consumers with a high involvement and interest in wine assign a higher degree of relevance to certification of origin of wine than consumers with a low involvement. The findings of this research report are based on respondents who mainly reside within the Western Cape and the demographic profile of respondents shows that mostly male respondents completed the online questionnaire. The findings are therefore tentative due to the geographical and demographical limitations. This research report is of value to academic researchers, wine marketing professionals and generic marketing organisations such as wine route organisations.

Formamide is a solvent of great interest to prebiotic chemists because it is liquid over a wide range, it is less volatile than either water or HCN, and it possesses a versatile reactivity. When formamide is heated in the presence of minerals or inorganic catalysts, a variety of products including purine nucleobases are generated. Irradiation of formamide reaction solutions with ultraviolet light increases the yield and diversity of products, and eliminates the need for a mineral catalyst. We have also performed formamide reactions in the presence of pyrite, a mineral which is likely to have been available on the primordial Earth, under a variety of atmospheric conditions. Our results indicate the greatest yield and diversity of products result from the combination of a pyrite mineral catalyst, heat, UV irradiation, and a carbon dioxide atmosphere. Purine nucleobases are simple to synthesize in model reactions and they stack well in aqueous solution; it has been hypothesized that the first nucleic acids were composed of only purine bases, and that water-soluble, cationic, aromatic molecules with large stacking surfaces (“”molecular midwives””) may have aided the assembly of the earliest nucleic acid analogs. We have characterized the interactions of various intercalators with a standard DNA duplex as well as with an antiparallel homopurine DNA duplex and have determined that molecules which possess four or more rings and a curved shape interact selectively with all-purine DNA; such molecules can serve as models for putative prebiotic midwives.

Syftet med uppsatsen är att undersöka de attityder som svenska och finländska konsumenter har beträffande ursprungslandsinformation, i synnerhet bilden av PIIGS-länderna. Teorierna i uppsatsen utgår ifrån Country of origin och dess effekter samt från tidigare forskning.Uppsatsen har en kvantitativ ansats där en enkätundersökning och statistiska beräkningar utförts. Slutsatserna i denna uppsats är att de svenska och finländska konsumenterna generellt inte tar hänsyn till ursprungslandsinformation. De påvisar även negativa attityder gentemotPIIGS-länderna gällande tillförlitlighet och produktkvalité i jämförelse med deras hemländer. / The purpose of this paper is to examine the attitudes that Swedish and Finnish consumers have regarding Country of origin information, in particular the image of the PIIGS countries.The theories in this essay are based on Country of origin and its effects as well as from previous conducted research. The essay has a quantitative approach in which a questionnaire and statistical calculations have been performed. The conclusions of this paper are that the Swedish and Finnish consumers generally do not take Country of origin information into account.They also show negative attitudes towards the PIIGS countries regarding reliability and product quality in comparison to their home countries.