The gradually increasing pressure of the organization¡¦s job demands becomes a universal and unchangeable fact. Most studies focused on the normal causal relationships between work stress and its outcomes rather than the reversed and reciprocal relationships between them. From the view points of drift hypothesis and gain and loss spiral resulting from the conservation of resource theory, the present study probed the reciprocal relationships between job characteristics, burnout and health. Two-wave panel data were collected from nurses both in public and private hospitals in southern Taiwan. Pre-test data were used to test the Cronbach's £\ and confirmatory factor analysis for each scale. Structural equation modeling implemented with AMOS 5.0 was employed to test the fitness of the hypothesized models. Through a series of nested models competing, our findings showed that the final models fitted well to the data. Our results proved some cross-lagged effects including the normal causal relationships between psychosocial job characteristics and burnout, the reversed causal relationships between burnout and mental, physical health, burnout has partial mediating relationships between psychosocial job characteristics and mental, physical health, and the reciprocal causal relationships between psychosocial job characteristics, burnout, and mental, physical health. According to our findings, managerial implications can be suggested that managers should pay attention to employees¡¦ burnout and introduce some managerial practices immediately in order to prevent the harmful outcomes of health. It can be achieved by higher job control to alleviate employees¡¦ job strain. Organizations should increase employee¡¦s job control such as job redesign, flexible work schedules, and goal setting. In addition, burnout can be affected by mental and physical health as well. From the viewpoint of organizational intervention, stress management programs can help to improve employees¡¦ physical and mental health, which will in turn release employee¡¦s burnout. Organizations will gain a competitive advantage if they make better use of their human resources.

This research, aimed at advancing the theory of environmental hazard adjustment processes by contrasting households from three cities in a high seismic hazard area with households from three other cities in a moderate seismic hazard area. It identified seven types of stakeholders namely, the risk area residents and their families (primary group), the news media, employers, and friends (secondary group), and federal, state, and local governments (tertiary group), and explained why they are relevant to the adoption of seismic hazard adjustments. It also addressed three key attributes— knowledge, trustworthiness, and responsibility for protection—ascribed to these multiple stakeholders and the relationships of these stakeholder attributes with risk perception, hazard intrusiveness, hazard experience, gender, resource adequacy, fatalism and hazard adjustment adoption. It was specifically concerned with the effects of nested interactions due to trust and power differentials among the seven stakeholders, with the self reported adoption of 16 earthquake protective measures at two points in time (1997 and 1999). Some of the key findings indicate that risk perception, gender, fatalism, city activity in earthquake management and demographic characteristics did not significantly predict hazard adjustment adoption. However, all stakeholder characteristics had significant positive correlations with risk perception and hazard adjustment, implying a peripheral route for social influence. Hazard intrusiveness, hazard experience, and stakeholder knowledge, trustworthiness, and responsibility affected the increased adoption of hazard adjustments by households. Particularly important are the peer groups’ (employers, friends and family) knowledge, trustworthiness and responsibility. These findings suggest, hazard managers cannot count only on the federal, state, and local government advisories put out through the news media to affect community decisions and thereby households’ decisions to take protective actions. Instead, hazard managers need to shift focus and work through peer group networks such as service organizations, industry groups, trade unions, neighborhood organizations, community emergency response teams, faith-based organizations, and educational institutions to increase the knowledge, trustworthiness and responsibility of all in the peer group. This will assure higher household hazard adjustment adoption levels, thus facilitating a reduction in post disaster losses and recovery time.

Analyzing the development of the consequences of voluntary job changes in Germany between 1985 and 2013, the study focuses on income gains and job satisfaction increases. Drawing on arguments of the job-search literature on the one hand and the proliferation of choices on the other we investigate whether the returns of job changes have increased or decreased. Results show that income gains have decreased over time while the job satisfaction surplus has remained stable. We further conclude that in determining the outcomes of job changes over time, structural factors seem to be more important than individual ones.

Uppsatsens syfte ämnar undersöka svenskars benägenhet att välja en utrikes född partner utifrån individers bostadsort samt deras egen och föräldrars utbildning. Valet av partner analyseras utifrån ett perspektiv där valet inte sker slumpmässigt utan styrs av faktorer som påverkar möjligheterna till vilken partner svenskar träffar. Tidigare forskning har främst studerat parförhållanden mellan olika minoritetsgrupper och minoriteters tendens att ha en inrikes född partner. Eftersom parförhållanden mellan majoriteten och minoriteterna anses vara en indikator på hur starka gränserna är mellan olika grupper i samhället, är det av sociologiskt intresse att också studera hur majoritetsgruppen väljer en partner från minoritetsgrupper. Teoriavsnittet beskriver inledningsvis begreppen endogami, homogami och exogami som olika former av parförhållanden för att sedan diskutera hur svenskars partnermarknad påverkas av deras socioekonomiska resurser och sociala kontext. Datamaterialet som används i studien kommer från SUDA:s undersökning Young Adult Panel Study från år 1999 och studiens urval består av individer födda i Sverige av svenskfödda föräldrar som vid undersökningstillfället var i ett parförhållande. Logistisk regressionsanalys är den metod som tillämpats för att analysera svenskars benägenhet att ha en utrikes född partner. Studiens resultat indikerar att föräldrars utbildning, till skillnad från respondenters egen utbildning, hade en betydande effekt på benägenheten att ha en partner som är född utomlands. Det visar också att svenskar som bor i storstäder är mer benägna att ha en utrikes född partner i jämförelse med de som bor på landsbygden. Samspelet mellan individers socioekonomiska bakgrund och sociala kontext kan således påverka vilken partnermarknad som är tillgänglig för varje individ och är därmed avgörande för svenskars benägenhet att ha en utrikes född partner.

This study focuses upon the extent that teaching about democracy affects pupil comprehension and opinions about democracy. Its point of departure is the question, “to what extent is school an agent of democratic socialization?” The overall aim of this study is to contribute to understanding the democratic socialization process and especially to understand the role that school can play in that process.   The study is comprised of a survey about democratic values, democratic institutions and democratic authorities completed by 318 upper secondary pupils upon two occasions. The first was just prior to the start of the course, “Samhällskunskap A” and the second was at the end of that course. The survey also included a number of background questions related to each individual participant; 28 pupils in one of the schools who had not yet studied “Samhällskunskap A” were used as a control group. Twelve teachers involved in actual teaching at that time were interviewed regarding their attitudes toward the official documents about democratic socialization and whether or not they saw the goals as articulated in those documents as possible to achieve.   Based upon theories about democratic socialization and socialization agents, a number of conditions and problems were formulated and operationalized in order to analyse the outcome of the study. Three main concepts were used as analytical tools: democratic orientations, democratic socialization and socialization agent.   The results do not support the assumption that school can be seen as a general democratic socialization agent through teaching about politics and democracy. But certain situations and aspects of democratic orientations demonstrate that the school has a tendency to affect socialization; therefore school is seen as a specific democratic socialization agent. The main conclusion of this study is that teaching about politics and democracy is expected to have limited influence on pupils in upper secondary school. Also important is the finding that the pupil’s average change on the aggregate level is low, but on individual level, many pupils made significant changes regarding their democratic orientations during the course. The results support a view that the process of democratic socialization is a complex process and is difficult to predict.

This thesis investigates if the tax rate on dividend income has a significant effect on private consumption expenditure. This is done through a panel study on 36 OECD countries during the period 2000-2019. Regressions using differenced data and several control variables are used. The results are to some extent in line with previous empirical work studying the effects of tax changes on consumption. The results indicate that the taxation of capital income in the form of the overall tax rate on dividend income does not have a significant effect on private consumption expenditure. The theoretical mechanism deemed most likely to be in effect is tax planning since contradictory results are obtained regarding the effects of other tax rates in the form of taxes on labour income and VAT on private consumption expenditure.

I explore the relationship between quality of maternal employment and children’s reading achievement between six to thirteen years of age using data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics. The hypotheses assert that job quality in terms of level of autonomy, supervisory power, complexity with people, data and things, and family benefits have significant positive effects on children’s reading achievement. The least squares estimates indicate that complexity, power, and autonomy has significant positive effects for children while the effects of family benefits is weak with the exception of the positive effect of union membership for racially disadvantaged groups.

<p>The Stockholm Congestion Tax Trial is one of the few projects where an automatic system was implemented to tax road vehicles in order to reduce congestion. The taxation period lasted from January until July 2006 and vehicles going in or out of the inner city during daytime were taxed with 10 to 20 SEK (1.07 to 2.14 Euro). The project included improved public transportation and more park & ride sites. The trial was limited to a half year and the public was able to vote on the congestion tax afterwards. A large research package was set up in order to inform everybody about the effects of the tax. The referendum was positive and the congestion tax is permanent today, but the data collected for research purposes is not fully analyzed yet. This thesis focuses on travel behavior of the population in Stockholm County and uses a household panel survey with 24,000 individuals. The waves took place in September 2004 and March 2006.The main idea is to use the advantages of the panel survey and keep track of how the individuals behaved during the two waves. The analysis is done separately for each trip purpose and examines the change of mode choice during the second wave in comparison to the individual’s choice before the congestion tax. This can be even specified for different socio-demographic groups.The cross-sectional comparison shows that avoiding trips to and from the inner city is not an option. The number of trips of the individuals passing through the congestion tax cordon is reduced to a lower extend by seasonal influences than the trips in all other parts of the county. Therefore the inner city has become more attractive as a origin or destination or the trips passing through the cordon can not be substituted by trips free of tax.Public transportation is the mode which benefits most from the congestion tax in terms of modal split. The importance of it increases in the whole county, but the gain is a lot higher for trips through the cordon. The modes foot and bike are not a relevant alternative for trips through the cordon because of long distances in general and cold weather during the survey. The panel analysis shows that many more people doing cordon passages to work, home and shopping change from car to public transportation in comparison to the rest of the county. Changes from public transport to car occur less often for cordon passages than for trips not being taxed.Certain socio-demographic groups adapt differently to the congestion tax. Compared to men, up to 30 percent point fewer women continue to use the car depending on the trip purpose. This may be related to personal income, but the variables household income has proofed to have a smaller impact. Only really poor households use the car a lot less often and the highest income group tends to continue to drive by car.The main limiting factor of the analysis is the seasonal and weather influence because of unusual cold weather during the second wave. It is not possible to take this completely into account because the control group of the cordon passages has different trip characteristics.The thesis provides better knowledge how a congestion tax affects the behavior of the people. It allows checking the reasonability of transportation modeling results and shows that certain socio-demographic variables should be used if modeling is done for areas with a different composition of the population than Stockholm.</p> / <p>Der Versuch der Stockholmer Innenstadtmaut ist eines der wenigen Projekte, bei dem ein automatisches Mauterhebungssystem für Fahrzeuge zur Stauminderung eingeführt wurde. Der Versuchszeitraum mit Mauterhebung reichte von Januar bis Juli 2006. Alle Fahrzeuge, die in und aus der Innenstadt fuhren, mussten tagsüber 10 bis 20 SEK (1,07 bis 2,14 Euro) bezahlen. Das Projekt beinhaltete einen verbesserten öffentlichen Personennahverkehr und mehr Park&Ride-Stellplätze.Der Versuch war auf ein halbes Jahr begrenzt und im Anschluss wurde eine Volksabstimmung durchgeführt. Zur Information der Bevölkerung über die Auswirkungen der Maut wurde ein großes Forschungspaket aufgelegt. Die Volkabstimmung verlief positiv und die Maut ist heute dauerhaft eingeführt, aber die gesammelten Daten aus dem Forschungsprojekt sind noch nicht vollständig ausgewertet. Diese Arbeit konzentriert sich auf das Mobilitätsverhalten der Bevölkerung im Bezirk Stockholm und verwendet eine Panelbefragung in Haushalten mit 24.000 Teilnehmern. Die Befragungswellen fanden im September 2004 und März 2006 statt.Die Untersuchung verfolgt das Verhalten einzelner Individuen während der beiden Wellen und nutzt somit die Vorteile, die die Panelbefragung bietet. Die Analyse wird separat für jeden Wegezweck durchgeführt und betrachtet die Änderung der Verkehrmittelwahl während der zweiten Welle im Vergleich zur ursprünglichen Wahl vor der Maut. Dies wird durch die Auswertung einzelner soziodemographischer Gruppen ergänzt.Die Querschnittsuntersuchung zeigt, dass die Maut nicht zu einer Vermeidung von Wegen in oder aus der Innenstadt führt. Die Anzahl an Wegen durch den Mautgürtel nimmt leichter durch saisonale Einflüsse ab als in anderen Teilen des Bezirkes. Somit ist die Stadt entweder als Quell- oder Zielgebiet attraktiver geworden oder die Wege durch den Mautgürtel können nicht durch kostenfreie Fahrten ersetzt werden.Der öffentliche Personennahverkehr profitiert im Sinne vom Modal Split am meisten von der Maut. Die Bedeutung steigt im gesamten Bezirk, aber das Wachstum ist deutlich stärker für Wege durch den Mautgürtel. Die Verkehrsmittel Fuß und Fahrrad sind keine Alternative für die kostenpflichtigen Wege, da die Reiseweiten zu hoch sind und das Wetter zu kalt war. Die Panelanalyse zeigt, dass deutlich mehr Personen mit Wegen durch den Mautgürtel zur Arbeit, nach Hause und zum Einkaufen vom Auto zum öffentlichen Verkehr umsteigen als im Rest des Bezirks. Wechsel vom öffentlichen Verkehr zum Auto treten seltener bei Wegen in oder aus der Innenstadt auf als bei kostenfreien Fahrten.Einzelne soziodemographische Gruppen passen sich besonders an die Maut an. Frauen ersetzen je nach Wegezweck im Vergleich zu Männern bis zu 30 % häufiger das Auto durch alternative Verkehrsmittel. Dies kann mit geringerem persönlichen Einkommen zusammenhängen, aber die Variable Haushaltseinkommen hat in der Untersuchung einen eher geringen Einfluss bewiesen. Nur sehr arme Haushalte nutzen das Auto deutlich weniger und die Haushalte in der höchsten Einkommensgruppe behalten die Autonutzung bei.Die gesamte Analyse wird durch saisonale Einflüsse und das Wetter eingeschränkt, das während der zweiten Welle ungewöhnlich kalt war. Dieser Einfluss kann nicht vollständig berücksichtigt werden, da die Kontrollgruppe für die Wege durch den Mautgürtel Unterschiede bei der Wegecharakteristik aufweist.Die Studienarbeit verbessert das Wissen über Verhaltensänderungen der Menschen durch eine Maut. Sie ermöglicht die Überprüfung von Ergebnissen der Verkehrsmodellierung und zeigt, dass einzelne soziodemographische Merkmale für die Modellierung in anderen Regionen genutzt werden sollten, wenn die Zusammensetzung der Bevölkerung von Stockholm abweicht.</p> / <p>Stockholmsförsöket är ett av de få projekten som brukar ett automatik systemet för beskatta fordon med trängselskatt. Syftet är att minska trängseln på gatorna. Försöksperioden låg mellan januari och juli 2006. Fordon som åkte in eller ut i innerstaden måste betala 10 till 20 SEK under dagtid. Försöket omfattade förbättrad kollektivtrafik samt fler infartsparkeringar.Försöket var begränsat till ett halvt år och allmänhet hade folkomröstning om skatten senare. En stort  paket med många forskningsprojekt startas för att informera alla om effekter av skatt. Folkomröstning gav ett jakande svar och trängselskatt är idag permanent. Men all samlad data är ännu inte analyserad. Det här examensarbetet koncentrerar på resvanor av alla invånare i Stockholms Län och använder kohortstudier med 24 000 personer. Vågor uppstod i september 2004 och mars 2006.Huvudideen var att  använda sig av kohortstudier och studera beteendet i båda vågorna. Alla ärenden analyserades separat och skillnaderna på färdmedelna undersötes mellan förre och efter trängselskatt. Det kan även bli specificerad för flera olika sociala bakgrundsgrupper.Tvärsnittstudiens analys visar att förhindra resor till och från innerstaden inte är ett alternativ. Antal av resenärer som passerat avgiftssnittet har inte minskat så mycket av väder än alla andra resor i länet. Innerstaden är mer attraktiv som utgångspungt eller destination. De kan inte ersättnas med resor som kostar ingen skatt.Färdmedelfördelning har förbättrats för kollektivtrafiken på grund av trängselskatt. Kollektivtrafiken ökar i hela länet, men vinsten är störst för resor som passerat avgiftnittet. Färdmedeln fot och cykel är inget alternativ på grund av långt avstånd och dåligt väder under andra vågor. Kohortstudier visar att många resenärer byter från bil till kollektivtrafiken när man resan till jobbet, hemmet och inför shoping om man jämför med hela länet. Växling från kollektivtrafiken till bil är mindre för resorna som måste betala skatt.Några sociala grupper anpassar sig annorlunda till trängselskatten. Kvinnor åker bil ner till 30 procent mindre än men. Orsak är kanske lägre personlig inkomst, men variabel hushållinkomst har mindre effekt. Fattiga hushåll andvänder  bil mycket mindre än rika hushåll, som åker bil mycket mer.Huvudbegränsningen av analysen är årstiderna och vädret,, som tillexempel ovanlig kallt väder under andra vågoen. Man kan inte förklara hela effekten därför att kontrollgruppen av har olika egenskaper.Examensarbetet  bättre kunskap hur trängselskatten påverkar beteendet av människor. Det möjliggör att kontrollera transportmodellerings resultat och visar att några variabler skulle användas om modellering skulle göras i annan region med en annan typ av  sammansättning av befolkning  än i Stockholm.</p>

Masters Research - Master of Medical Science / Numerous overseas studies have linked both short and long-term exposures to outdoor air pollution to a range of health effects. The differences in air pollution sources, climate and geography in Australia challenged the generalisability of these overseas findings to the Australian setting. In response, the Hunter Illawarra Study of Airways and Air Pollution (HISAAP) was undertaken. The aim of Phase II of HISAAP was to assess the short-term effects of particulates on respiratory health amongst symptomatic children. This thesis presents the results of an analysis of the 345 primary school children eligible for Phase II of the Hunter component of HISAAP. There were multiple daily diary measures on each child, different types of outcomes such as continuous, dichotomous and count variables, as well as several sources of exposure data on pollutants. Because of the complex and hierarchical nature of data, there are several possible methods of analyses that could be used. The thesis begins with a description of the sampling methods used in the study. Next, an overview of the literature on the relationship between air pollution and respiratory health, followed by a review of the methods of analyses appropriate for longitudinal diary studies of this nature. The methods and results are then presented for the analyses of the association between the three main outcomes of interest – evening peak flow, day cough and bronchodilator use – and air quality variables: particulates (PM10 and TSP), sulphur dioxide, pollens and fungi, using three modelling approaches. These include a representative of data reduction methods (Aggregate analysis), subject-specific or mixed-model methods (Korn-Whittemore analysis) and marginal methods (Generalised Estimating Equations). All estimates were adjusted for climate-related covariates and trend. The final chapter discusses the advantages and disadvantages of the various methods of analyses, and a recommendation for analytic techniques for further studies.

Schools, families, and neighborhoods can support the development of happy, healthy children and adolescents. However, a majority of children in the United States also experience adversity in their early lives that can have deleterious effects on their cognitive and socioemotional development. Measuring and modeling early adversity is fundamental to understanding development as it occurs through interactions with schools, families and neighborhoods. As outlined by Bronfenbrenner's bioecological model of human development, proximal and distal forces shape development, and cannot be isolated when relating measures of the developmental context to outcomes for individuals. For schools and other social programs to support students from high adversity backgrounds, the nature and structure of adversity and contextual influences must be measured and modeled in a robust manner. The three distinct papers in this dissertation describe the construction and evaluation of measurements for adversity, family conflict, neighborhood quality, and school safety, along with models that relate these elements to each other and cognitive outcomes in childhood and adolescence. Structural equation modeling is used to investigate the latent variables generated to measure the constructs and the nature of their relationships. The studies use nationally representative data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics to create and test the theoretically driven models. The first study constructs and tests latent variables aligned with the Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) framework in order to generate a continuous and theoretically coherent measurement of adversity. The second study uses this ACEs measurement along with measures of family conflict and neighborhood quality to generate and test path models informed by the bioecological theory of development. The third study applies these measures of developmental constructs to the study of safety in schools and identifies the differential function of school safety for children with varying levels of adversity to better understand the potential for school-based interventions. Results from these studies indicate the utility of a latent variable approach to measuring adversity, and the viability of path analysis for the study of how ACEs, family conflict and neighborhood quality influence cognitive outcomes. Additionally, results provide evidence for the necessity of varied and networked developmental supports for children from highly adverse beginnings, above those that may be available through reforms to school safety. Taken together, these studies provide a rich portrait of childhood development incorporating multiple contextual influences, and add to our understanding of what schools can and cannot do to support children.