Orientador: João Carlos Pinheiro Ferreira / Coorientador: Silvia Mitiko Nishida / Banca: Rodrigo Egydio Barreto / Banca: Carlos Roberto Teixeira / Resumo: O papagaio verdadeiro é uma espécie monogâmica que possui inteligência social, porém, é comumente vítima das ilegalidades ambientais e da vida em cativeiro. O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar a dinâmica social e o repertório comportamental ao juntar machos e fêmeas da espécie pela primeira vez; com enfoque nos padrões que validassem o vínculo social entre as aves e os comportamentos estereotipados. 13 machos e 13 fêmeas cativos foram utilizados; separados em grupos isossexuais na primeira fase, em grupo sexual na segunda fase e, isolados do grupo, aos pares e casal, na terceira fase. As observações foram registradas diariamente pela manhã, com tempo de filmagem de 20 minutos/ave, totalizando 100 minutos de registro/ave/fase. As análises comportamentais foram relacionadas em 8 categorias, sempre observando a manutenção de pares existentes e as novas formações sociais quando juntou-se as aves. Para análise estatística foi utilizado o teste de Friedman para comparar a porcentagem de tempo gasto em cada comportamento entre os sexos e entre as fases, com valor de significância adotado de P>0,05. A composição social na fase isossexual constitui-se de 2 pares de machos, 2 pares de fêmeas e um trio de fêmeas. Na fase sexual foram 4 pares de machos e 3 pares de fêmeas isossexuais e 1 casal. Os resultados obtidos sugerem que isolar papagaios verdadeiros, mesmo com seus pares, não promove uma condição de bem-estar animal e manutenção do vínculo social, uma vez que os comportamentos estereotipados aumentaram e os afiliativos diminuíram nesta condição. Também revelam que a fidelidade dos pares manteve-se em aves com aspecto dominante, mesmo em uma nova condição ambiental e social / Abstract: The Blue-fronted Amazon parrot is a monogamous species that has social intelligence. However, it is commonly a victim of environmental illegalities and of life in captivity. The goal of this study was to evaluate the social dynamics and behavioral repertoire when males and females of the same species were put together for the first time, with an emphasis on patterns that would validate the social bond between the birds and stereotypical behaviors. 13 captive males and 13 captive females were used, separated in isosexual groups during the first phase, in sexual groups during the second phase and isolated from the group, in pairs and as a couple, during the third phase. The observations were registered daily in the morning, with a recording time of 20 minutes/bird, adding up to 100 minutes of recording/bird/phase. The behavioral analysis were separated in 8 categories, always observing the maintenance of existing pairs and the new social formations when the birds were put together. For statistical analysis the Friedman test was used to compare the percentage of time that was spent doing each behavior between sexes and between phases, using significance values of P>0.05. The social composition in the isosexual phase was composed of 2 pairs of males, 2 pairs of females and three females. In the sexual phase there were 4 pairs of males and 3 pairs of isosexual females and 1 couple. The obtained results suggest that isolating Blue-fronted amazon parrots, even as a couple, does not promote a condition of animal well-being and maintenance of the social bond, as the stereotypical behaviors increased and the affiliative behaviors decreased in this condition. They also showed that the fidelity of the pairs was maintained in birds with dominant aspect, even in a new environmental and social condition / Mestre

Realizamos o isolamento de leveduras do complexo Cryptococcus a partir da cloaca e do inglúvio de papagaios do gênero Amazona aestiva. Para a realização das coletas, as aves foram anestesiadas, e em seguida foi realizado lavado do inglúvio e coleta de material da cloaca. As amostras coletadas foram inoculadas em ágar Sabouraud dextrose com cloranfenicol, de onde foram isoladas colônias leveduriformes. Por meio de análises macro e micromorfológicas, os isolados condizentes com as características do gênero Cryptococcus foram submetidos à provas bioquímicas, testes de suscetibilidade aos antifúngicos e pesquisa de exoenzimas. Todos os isolados foram provenientes da cloaca. Dos isolamentos, 90% das cepas corresponderam à espécie C. albidus, e 10% à espécie C. laurentii; 80% foram produtores de fosfolipase e 100% de proteinase. Estes resultados sugerem que não só o ambiente, como também as aves podem ser carreadoras de Cryptococcus albidus. / We performed the isolation of yeasts of Cryptococcus complex from the cloaca and the crop of parrots of the genus Amazona aestiva. To carry out the sampling, the birds were anesthetized to perform a lavage of the crop and the collection of material from the cloaca. The samples were inoculated on Sabouraud dextrose agar with chloramphenicol, which were isolated from yeast colonies. Through macro and micromorphological analysis, isolates consistent with the characteristics of the genus Cryptococcus were subjected to biochemical tests, antifungal susceptibility testing and research exoenzymes. All isolates were from the cloaca. Of the isolates, 90% of the strains corresponded to the species C. albidus, and 10% of the species C. laurentii; 80% of the isolates were producing phospholipase and 100% were producing proteinase. These results suggest that not only environmental but also birds can be Cryptococcus albidus carrier. These results suggest that there is not only an environmental source but also birds can be Cryptococcus albidus carriers

Orientador: Urara Kawazoe / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Biologia / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-23T00:21:20Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 MonteiroFilho_LuizPauloCobra_M.pdf: 2118812 bytes, checksum: a948577e483cc6e6c98d3bb599dd8489 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011 / Resumo: Em jardins zoológicos as aves cativas silvestres e as exóticas podem estar expostas a algum tipo de estresse, o que causa imunossupressão em alguns indivíduos e, conseqüentemente, facilita o parasitismo até por parasitos pouco patogênicos. Tornam-se importantes, análises periódicas da relação parasito-hospedeiro em aves cativas para a percepção e entendimento da situação no controle de doenças, principalmente considerando a possibilidade da identificação de novas espécies de parasitos intestinais em novos hospedeiros, em especial os protozoários. Com esse objetivo, foram realizados levantamentos coproparasitológicos em três jardins zoológicos (Americana-SP, Guarulhos-SP e Alfenas-MG) e em um criadouro de aves silvestres e exóticas (Sítio da Ferradura em Poços de Caldas). Amostras frescas de fezes foram coletadas em solução de dicromato de potássio a 2,0 % e processadas usando o método de Hoffman, Pons & Janer modificado, seguido do Método de McMaster modificado (flutuação em solução saturada de NaCl). Os parasitos identificados com maior freqüência foram os coccídios Eimeria spp. e o nematoda Capillaria spp. Nos Zoológicos de Americana e Guarulhos, situados no Estado de São Paulo, a prevalência média de Capillaria spp. foi de 57,1 % e 66,7 % e de Eimeria spp. foi de 42,9 % e 33,3 %, respectivamente. No Jardim Zoológico de Alfenas (MG) observou-se apenas a presença de coccídios (100,0 %), sendo que se trata de um plantel com apenas 20 aves, do setor extra e dos recintos de exposição. No Criadouro de Poços de Caldas, identificou-se 36,0 % tanto para a Capillaria spp. como para a Eimeria spp. Considerando o total de amostras examinadas das quatro instituições, o gênero de ave que apresentou maior parasitismo por coccídio foi o Ramphastos spp., apesar da maioria das aves examinadas pertencerem a Ordem Psittaciformes. Pela análise das medidas de comprimento e largura dos oocistos encontrados em Rhamphastos toco (24,54 ?m ±1,17 x 23,83 ?m ±1,54) e em Coragyps atratus (20,99 ?m ±1,24 x 17,59 ±1,78 ?m e 17,92 ?m ±0,74 x 15,59 ?m ±0,96) com medidas, morfologia e hospedeiros distintos das espécies descritas na literatura, concluiu-se a identificação de três novas espécies de Eimeria no presente estudo. Além dessas espécies, três outras espécies de Eimeria (Eimeria forresteri, E. amazonae e E. ochrocephalae) descritas na literatura também foram identificadas. A partir da avaliação dos resultados obtidos no levantamento parasitológico, algumas medidas e procedimentos de manejo referentes à prevenção auxiliaram no controle da coccidiose e capilariose em ambientes com aves cativas / Abstract: Wild and exotic captive birds living in the Zoo are under stress conditions which could affect their immune system and acquire parasite infections even those with low pathogenicity. Periodical analysis of intestinal parasites, especially protozoans are important for their control and eventually identifications of new species in new hosts. The objective of this study was to identify intestinal parasite species in captive birds of Zoo Garden of Americana, São Paulo; Zoo Garden of Guarulhos, SP and Zoo Garden of Alfenas, Minas Gerais and the Wild and Exotic Birds Breeding Place located in the ?Sítio da Ferradura?, Poços de Caldas, MG. Fresh fecal samples were collected and placed in 2,0 % potassium dichromate solution and examined after using modified concentrated method of sedimentation (Hofman, Pons & Janer) and McMaster modified floatation method. The most frequent parasites identified were Eimeria spp. and Capillaria spp. In the Zoo Garden of Guarulhos and Americana, the prevalence of Capillaria spp. was 57,1 % and 66,7 % and of Eimeria spp. was 42,9 % and 33,3 % respectively. In the Zoo Garden of Alfenas, with a small number of 20 birds, only Eimeria spp. was identified (100 %) while in the Bird Breeding Place in the Poços de Caldas 36,0 % of Capillaria spp. and Eimeria spp. were identified. Considering all the birds evaluated for intestinal parasites in four zoos, Ramphastos spp. was the most prevalent bird for coccidium parasites although the number of birds of the Order Psittaciformes was much greater them the previous one. The length and width of oocysts from fecal samples of Ramphastos toco were measured (24,54 ?m ±1,17 x 23,83 ?m ±1,54) as well as the length and the width of two oocyst types found in Coragyps atratus (20,99 ?m ±1,24 x 17,59 ±1,78 ?m and 17,92 ?m ±0,74 x 15,59 ?m ±0,96). The statistical analysis of these measures showed significant difference between them. These measures and oocyst shapes compared with other measures and morphological oocyst structures described in the literature showed difference between them. Based on this information it was possible to conclude that they were considered new species of Eimeria not described previously. Three other species of Eimeria were also identified in the present study: E forresteri, E. Amazonae and E. Ochrocephalae. Some management proceedings in captive bird's environment for the prevention of coccidiosis and capilariosis were performed successfully after overall parasite identifications in the present study / Mestrado / Parasitologia / Mestre em Parasitologia

Weltweit ist eine rasante Zunahme des Artensterbens auch bei der Klasse Aves zu verzeichnen. Durch Umweltveränderungen und unzählige andere menschliche Einflüsse (z.B. illegaler Handel) ist fast ein Drittel der Papageienpopulation (Psittaciformes) vom Aussterben bedroht. Eine Möglichkeit, diesen Trend aufzuhalten, besteht in der gezielten und effektiven Nachzucht bedrohter Arten in der Obhut von Menschen mit dem Ziel der späteren Wiederauswilderung. Leider waren bisher solche Bemühungen oft erfolglos. Dies ist der Tatsache geschuldet, dass fundierte wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Reproduktionsstatus nahezu fehlen und ein Transfer der hormonanalytischen Methoden vom Säugetier zum Vogel nicht so einfach möglich ist. Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war die Etablierung von Methoden zur Hormonbestimmung in verschiedenen Medien beim männlichen Papagei, mit deren Hilfe eine Einordnung des Reproduktionsstatus möglich ist. Im Vordergrund standen dabei vor allem nicht-invasive Techniken, die mit deutlich geringerem Stress für die Tiere verbunden sind. Als Vertreter für die Gruppe der Papageienartigen wurden Wellensittiche (Melopsittacus undulatus, n=11), Nymphensittiche (Nymphicus hollandicus, n=9) und Halsbandsittiche (Psittacula krameri, n=7) ausgewählt und endokrinologisch untersucht. Diese Vögel wurden vom Bundesverband für fachgerechten Natur- und Artenschutz e.V. (BNA) zur Verfügung gestellt. Die Hormonanalyse erfolgte in den regelmäßig gesammelten Blut-, Speichel- und Kotproben der männlichen Psittaziden. Neben dem Sexualhormon Testosteron wurden die Blutspiegel des Stresshormons Corticosteron bestimmt, da eine mögliche Beziehung zwischen Stress und Testosteronsekretion besteht. In den Vorversuchen wurden zunächst geeignete Methoden für die Hormonanalyse in den verschiedenen Medien beim Papagei entwickelt. Zur Extraktion von Testosteron aus den Blut- und Kotproben erwies sich Diethylether als gut geeignet, während Speichel direkt ohne Extraktion im Testosteron-Enzymimmunoassay eingesetzt wurde. Da Papageien hauptsächlich primär konjugierte Testosteronmetabolite (85%) ausscheiden, wurden die Kotproben nach dem Trocknen und Einwiegen mit Hilfe der β-Glucuronidase/Arylsulfatase hydrolysiert und dann mit Diethyether extrahiert. Die Corticosteronanalyse im Plasma der Papageien erfolgte durch Fällung der Proteine mittels absolutem Alkohol und Einsatz der Plasmaextrakte in den Radioimmunoassay. Bei den verschiedenen Papageienspezies traten während der Untersuchungsperiode vergleichbare Plasma-Testosteronkonzentrationen auf. Die höchsten Plasmaspiegel (0,36 ng/ml) wiesen die Wellensittiche im März 2007 auf, ähnliche Konzentrationen (0,34 ng/ml) erreichten die Nymphensittiche im Februar 2007. Demgegenüber zeigten die Halsbandsittiche geringere maximale Konzentrationen (0,26 ng/ml) im November 2007. Im Kot der Papageien wurden erwartungsgemäß deutlich höhere Testosteronwerte gemessen, weil die Steroidausscheidung im Kot kumulativ eine zurückliegende Zeitperiode und Blut den aktuellen Hormonstatus zum Zeitpunkt der Probennahme widerspiegelt. Bezüglich der Haltungs- und Umweltbedingungen zeigten die Papageien maximale Testosteronspiegel während der kalten Jahreszeit, bei kurzer (Halsbandsittich) bzw. zunehmender Tageslichtlänge (Wellen- und Nymphensittich) und Haltung in der Innenvoliere. Dabei spielte die Niederschlagsmenge in der gemäßigten Klimazone offenbar weniger eine Rolle in der aviären Reproduktion. Die Verlaufsuntersuchungen des Stresshormons Corticosteron im Blut der Papageien ergaben speziesspezifische Unterschiede hinsichtlich der Konzentrationen, zeitlichen Verläufe und in Bezug zum Testosteronspiegel. Auffällig hohe Corticosteronkonzentrationen zeigten die nicht domestizierten Halsbandsittiche (15,9 – 35,6 ng/ml) im Vergleich zu den Wellensittichen (1,76 – 17,1 ng/ml) und Nymphensittichen (4,06 – 12,1 ng/ml), bei denen sich vermutlich im Laufe der Domestikation eine verminderte Sensibilität der HPA-Achse ausgebildet hat. In Bezug zum Plasma-Testosteronspiegel war bei den Wellen- und Halsbandsittichen ein gegenläufiger Zusammenhang erkennbar, wobei beim Nymphensittich eine positive Korrelation zwischen der Testosteron- und Corticosteronkonzentrationim Plasma bestand. Zusammenfassend lässt sich sagen, dass durch die Testosteronanalyse in Kot und Plasma eine Einordnung des Reproduktionsstatus beim Wellen-, Nymphen- und Halsbandsittich möglich ist. Es ist jedoch sinnvoll, Proben zu verschiedenen Zeitpunkten vergleichend zu betrachten, um die tierindividuellen Unterschiede zu berücksichtigen. Offensichtlich stehen die Steroidhormone der Gonaden und der Nebenniere zueinander in Beziehung, sodass auch Corticosteron in der Reproduktionsdiagnostik von männlichen Psittaziden Anwendung finden sollte.

Meyer’s Parrot Poicephalus meyeri is the smallest of the nine Poicephalus parrots, forming the P. meyeri superspecies complex with five congeners. Their distributional range far exceeds any other African parrot, extending throughout subtropical Africa. Meyer’s Parrots had previously not been studied in the wild, and therefore, gathering high-quality empirical data on their behavioural ecology became a research and conservation priority. The primary aim of the study was to correlate environmental (e.g. rainfall, habitat availability, resource characteristics, food resource abundance and temperature) and social (e.g. inter- and intra-specific competition, predation, and human disturbance) variables with aspects of their ecology (e.g. flight activity, food item preferences, breeding activity, and group dynamics) to evaluate the degree of specialization in resource use (e.g. trophic, nesting and habitat niche metrics). African deforestation rates are the highest in the world, resulting in twelve out of the eighteen Meyer’s Parrot range states undergoing drastic loss of forest cover over the last 25 years. Most commentary on the population status of Meyer’s Parrots and other Poicephalus parrots pre-dates this period of rapid deforestation In addition, over 75 000 wild-caught Meyer’s Parrots and almost 1 million wild-caught Poicephalus parrots have been recorded in international trade since 1975. Empirical data from this study was used to identify ecological weaknesses (e.g. niche specialization or low breeding turnover) for evaluation within the context of deforestation in the African subtropics. Baseline data on the breeding biology and nest cavity requirements of Meyer’s Parrots was also necessary to assess the viability of applying the conservative sustained-harvest model to African parrots. A unifying goal of this study was to advance our knowledge of the ecology of African parrots and other Psittaciformes by assessing the validity of current hypotheses put forward in the literature. The Meyer’s Parrot Project was initiated in January 2004 on Vundumtiki Island in the north-eastern part of the Okavango Delta, Botswana. Due to high flood waters between March and July 2004, road transects were postponed till August 2004. Transects were conducted at Vundumtiki from August 2004 to July 2005 and February 2007 to August 2007, and at Mombo from August 2005 to January 2006. During 480 road transects over 24 months, food item preferences closely tracked fruiting and flowering phenology, resulting in significant positive correlations between Levins’ niche breadth, rainfall and food resource availability. Meyer’s Parrot can, therefore, be considered opportunistic generalists predispersal seed predator that tracks resource availability across a wide suite of potential food items, including 71 different food items from 37 tree species in 16 families. Meyer’s Parrots were, however, found to be habitat specialists preferring established galleries of riverine forest and associated Acacia-Combretum marginal woodland. These strong habitat associations facilitate their wide distribution throughout the Kavango Basin, Linyanti Swamps, down the Zambezi valley, up along the Rift Valley system in associations with the great lakes, through the Upper Nile and the Sudd, and west as far as Lake Chad through the Sahel. Seventy-five nest cavities were measured during this study, including 28 nest cavities utilized by Meyer’s Parrots within the 430ha sample area at Vundumtiki. Over 1700 hours of intensive nest observations at six nest cavities was undertaken. Meyer’s Parrots formed socially monogamous pair-bonds maintained over at least four breeding seasons. Breeding pairs established breeding territories up to an estimated 160ha within which there were 1–6 nest cavities. Eggs hatched asynchronously, yet nestlings fledged synchronously with similar body size and condition. There was evidence to support the incidence of extra-pair copulations, however, mitochondrial DNA sequence data are required to confirm the incidence of extra-pair fertilizations. Meyer’s Parrots had no preferences in regard to nest tree species beyond the incidence of suitable nest cavities, which are selected and further excavated to accommodate their non-random nest cavity preferences. There was a significant non-nesting Meyer’s Parrot population during the breeding season, likely due to this longlived cavity-nester delaying nesting until a suitable breeding territory becomes available. Meyer’s Parrots utilize communal roosts during summer and disperse from them according to the Foraging Dispersal Hypothesis. Due to the requirement to roost during the middle of the day to avoid heat stress, Meyer’s Parrots have bimodal flight and feeding activity patterns. The highest probability of locating Meyer’s Parrots is between 08h30 and 11h00 during summer when both adults are feeding on the seeds of fleshy-fruits in riverine forest communities. Due to the paucity of data on the current distribution and population status of Meyer’s Parrots and other African parrots, a continent-wide survey of all African parrots represents a conservation priority. Current deforestation rates in several Meyer’s Parrot range, their specialist habitat associations, and lack of evidence to support adaptability to a changing landscape mosaic necessitate the re-classification of Meyer’s Parrots as data deficient or nearthreatened. Based on low breeding population due to limited breeding opportunities, the CITES Appendix II wild-caught bird trade should also be halted until the sustainability of this trade has been evaluated and the relevant information made available. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2008.