Identity serves two functions: it orders our environment, and it gives us a sense of certainty. The role played by identity in the intractability of conflict has recently sparked a new line of research. Drawing on insights from social psychological research, I argue that intractable conflict circumstances bolster social identities and create rigid group norms, which affect the vulnerability of peace movement organizations that operate in this context. I hypothesize that peace organizations that disregard prominent group beliefs regarding the conflict, are more likely to be severely criticized at the collective level. For the empirical analysis, I turn to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, a typical case of on-going intractable conflict. I compare the results of a qualitative content analysis of expressions of in-group criticism towards local Israeli peace organisations in local media reporting, within the framework of group beliefs (2005-2018). The results indicate an overall trend of in-group criticism towards peace organisations in Israel, based on which suggestions for advances to the theory are made.

The Basque conflict has waged since the 1950s in its current form. However, with the arrival of democracy 36 years ago, the Basque Country has been the scene of an intense peace mobilization, dominated by two peace organizations: Gesto por la Paz, a group of community organizations that mobilize to publicly reject political violence, and Lokarri/Elkarri, an organization that includes a conflict resolution proposal based on dialogue between conflicting parties. While there is some literature on these organizations, none has analysed their extraordinary impact on Basque society. This research explores how the Basque peace movement has impacted on the social and political culture of the Basque conflict. It seeks to understand the nature of this impact and to determine the channels and methods by which it was achieved, using frame analysis. Three interlinked questions serve to guide the research, asking first if there is a Basque Peace Frame and if it could be considered a master frame, how this Basque Peace Frame has evolved, and, finally, how the Basque Peace Frame has impacted on other Basque Civil Society Organizations related to the conflict. This qualitative research spans the period between the March 2006 declaration of ceasefire by ETA and the end of fieldwork for this research in September 2008. The research includes 18 in depth interviews, written media, and analysis of seven notable Basque social organizations related to the conflict, in addition to the two peace organizations mentioned above. The research found the impact of the Basque peace movement in the Basque Country is significant and rich. The Basque Peace Frame developed based on the rejection of the use of violence as a political tool and identifies that violence as the main barrier to achieving an inclusive conflict resolution. The Basque peace movement organizations developed a specific kind of mobilization to enforce the Basque Peace Frame based on silent and symbolic acts. The objective was to counter the former dynamics of mobilization that were contentious and directed to promote Basque national rights. The Basque Peace Frame proposed a change in the way the political collective identity was constructed in the Basque Country, showing that an association between nationalism and violence is not obligatory. The Basque Peace Frame has evolved and spread between social organizations in the Basque Country, using sympathetic identity networks as the main channel of frame diffusion. Even organizations that did not reject the use of contentious methods of protest are now questioning the use of violence, signifying exciting prospects for the future of non-violent political action in the Basque Country.

This thesis engages with perception, interpretation, consequences, and management of critique as experienced by members of the Swedish Peace and Arbitration Society (SFSF), in the context following the Russian invasion of Ukraine and Sweden’s choice to accede to NATO. The aim is to get an inside perspective in to how the members experience this phenomenon. It does so by employing qualitative interviews, participant observations, and analysis of relevant literature. The grounds for criticism against peace organisations are believed to stem from differing understandings on what peace is, and how it could be achieved, the critique is then made salient through different processes, congruent with securitization of issues. The study contributes to the field of peace and conflict studies as it highlights discrepancies in the understandings of peace and the friction that it creates. The study finds that the members of SFSF finds their opinions and non-violent values are being marginalized as they attempt to problematise the causes and potential solutions to the Russia-Ukraine conflict, and their resistance to NATO-membership. They interpret the criticism as stemming from lacking opportunities for public engagement, suspicion and fear, and non-critical and biased media representations. This leads to the risk of self-censorship, difficulties in transmitting their messages, but also an increase in organisational memberships. The members realise the particularity of the situation and how it affects their opportunities, yet they find solace in beliefs of their current and future importance concerning the ambitions for international peace.

The Basque conflict has waged since the 1950s in its current form. However, with the arrival of democracy 36 years ago, the Basque Country has been the scene of an intense peace mobilization, dominated by two peace organizations: Gesto por la Paz, a group of community organizations that mobilize to publicly reject political violence, and Lokarri/Elkarri, an organization that includes a conflict resolution proposal based on dialogue between conflicting parties. While there is some literature on these organizations, none has analysed their extraordinary impact on Basque society. This research explores how the Basque peace movement has impacted on the social and political culture of the Basque conflict. It seeks to understand the nature of this impact and to determine the channels and methods by which it was achieved, using frame analysis. Three interlinked questions serve to guide the research, asking first if there is a Basque Peace Frame and if it could be considered a master frame, how this Basque Peace Frame has evolved, and, finally, how the Basque Peace Frame has impacted on other Basque Civil Society Organizations related to the conflict. This qualitative research spans the period between the March 2006 declaration of ceasefire by ETA and the end of fieldwork for this research in September 2008. The research includes 18 in depth interviews, written media, and analysis of seven notable Basque social organizations related to the conflict, in addition to the two peace organizations mentioned above. The research found the impact of the Basque peace movement in the Basque Country is significant and rich. The Basque Peace Frame developed based on the rejection of the use of violence as a political tool and identifies that violence as the main barrier to achieving an inclusive conflict resolution. The Basque peace movement organizations developed a specific kind of mobilization to enforce the Basque Peace Frame based on silent and symbolic acts. The objective was to counter the former dynamics of mobilization that were contentious and directed to promote Basque national rights. The Basque Peace Frame proposed a change in the way the political collective identity was constructed in the Basque Country, showing that an association between nationalism and violence is not obligatory. The Basque Peace Frame has evolved and spread between social organizations in the Basque Country, using sympathetic identity networks as the main channel of frame diffusion. Even organizations that did not reject the use of contentious methods of protest are now questioning the use of violence, signifying exciting prospects for the future of non-violent political action in the Basque Country. / La Fundacion La Caixa. Consejeria de Educación Universidades e Investigación of the Basque Country Government.