Honeybee queens produce a number of pheromones that influence the behaviour and physiology of worker bees. The mandibular gland secretion of queens, the major pheromone source, suppresses the formation of emergency queen cells, worker reproduction and coordinates the social organisation of the colony. A study of analytical procedures for honeybee queen mandibular gland pheromone was undertaken, with the aim of doing multiple analyses of the same individual over a period of time. Attention was given to developing new non-destructive sampling methods that would help to characterize signal changes. This study involves the characterisation of non-destructive sampling devices that are highly selective and sensitive towards extraction of mandibular pheromone. Two polymer based sampling techniques, solid phase micro extraction and silicone rubber tubing, compatible with gas chromatography were studied. A solvent extract, of mandibular pheromone was analysed by gas chromatography (GC) and employed as a tested reference method for the two newly developed techniques. Direct sampling with solid phase micro extraction fibres at the glandular openings at the base of the mandibles is a non-destructive method that met our objectives. Mandibular gland secretions from living honeybee queens were sampled with polar and non-polar fibres. Non-polar fibres were saturated with Bis(trimethylsilyl)triflouroacetamide (BSTFA) prior to mandibular pheromone extraction. Treatment of the polymer devices with derivatising agent enhances extraction of polar components of the mandibular pheromone. BSTFA saturated non-polar fibres with a low-polarity column gave consistent results compared to polar fibres with a mid-polar column. The results confirmed that the solid phase micro extraction technique is a sensitive and non-destructive method that can ideally be used to analyse insect secretions particularly in tracking temporal changes in the secretion composition during an individual’s life. Silicone rubber tubing consisting of polydimethylsiloxane was explored as an alternative sampling technique for pheromones from living individuals. Prepared One cm long silicone rubber tubing was saturated with BSTFA prior to mandibular pheromone extraction to enhance extraction of polar components. Preliminary studies done on mandibular pheromone standards sampled with this method showed promising results. However, queen mandibular secretion analyses were characterized by low recovery of pheromonal compounds. The new polymer based techniques that we employed isolated the mandibular pheromones from living honeybee queens directly from the mandibles. The pheromonal components of the mandibular gland secretion were successfully analysed. Copyright / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2009. / Chemistry / unrestricted

Odors that are essential to the survival and reproduction of a species take the form of complex mixtures of volatiles. Often, an odor source such as food or a potential mate releases a mixture with characteristic ratios between the components. Here, the encoding of the characteristic ratio between components of the pheromone released by a female moth is investigated in the antennal lobe (AL) of a male moth (Manduca sexta). The mechanisms by which olfactory systems of diverse insect species process odors are adapted to the particular environment and olfactory behavior of the animal. In the moth, innately attractive odors produce patterns of synchrony in the output of the AL, the projection neurons (PNs). Male moths exhibited attraction to synthetic mixtures of pheromone components that was selective for ratios at or near the natural ratio released by females. Selectivity increased as the moth neared the odor source and initiated mating behaviors. PNs in the macroglomerular complex (MGC) did not exhibit an effect of component ratio on their firing rate responses. However, pairs of PNs exhibited increased synchrony in response to the behaviorally effective ratios of pheromone components. Individual pairs exhibited selectivity for ratios within 1 order of magnitude from the natural ratio. Synchrony in PN spiking was not phase-locked to the network oscillations in the AL. A model for ratio-selective enhancement of synchronous PN output in the AL is proposed.

The European honey bee, Apis mellifera, is a primarily beneficial insect for mankind. It has been utilized by humans for thousands of years for the products and services it provides. Crop pollination and honey production are two of the most economically beneficial activities of the honey bee. Though they have been important for many centuries and immeasurable amounts of effort have been expended investigating the methods and means to harness their natural abilities, a far lesser amount of attention has been directed towards exploring their molecular makeup. These experiments involve identifying modification of gene transcription as a result of exposure to a pheromone or a parasite. This data will provide information on the general types of transcripts involved in the biochemical response of the honey bee to the two stimuli and will also provide specific candidates for further investigation of their potential role in downstream behavioral events.

In Drosophila melanogaster, chemical cues in the form of cuticular hydrocarbons play an important role in reproductive behavior. The social and genetic processes that regulate their expression, however, are poorly understood. The social environment has been shown to influence hydrocarbon display. In this study, the effect of population density on the expression of hydrocarbons was evaluated. I demonstrate that the production of certain hydrocarbons depends on the population density in which the animal is reared. Individual hydrocarbons fluctuate in quantity independently from one another but the peaks during a light-dark cycle are static depending mostly on chain length. The regulation of fly hydrocarbons which are density-dependent is shown to be sexually dimorphic. The RNAi knockdown of various putative lipid metabolism genes was also used to study hydrocarbon expression. This study reveals that lipid metabolism genes which are not obvious mediators of HC synthesis influence cuticular hydrocarbon profiles.

In Drosophila melanogaster, chemical cues in the form of cuticular hydrocarbons play an important role in reproductive behavior. The social and genetic processes that regulate their expression, however, are poorly understood. The social environment has been shown to influence hydrocarbon display. In this study, the effect of population density on the expression of hydrocarbons was evaluated. I demonstrate that the production of certain hydrocarbons depends on the population density in which the animal is reared. Individual hydrocarbons fluctuate in quantity independently from one another but the peaks during a light-dark cycle are static depending mostly on chain length. The regulation of fly hydrocarbons which are density-dependent is shown to be sexually dimorphic. The RNAi knockdown of various putative lipid metabolism genes was also used to study hydrocarbon expression. This study reveals that lipid metabolism genes which are not obvious mediators of HC synthesis influence cuticular hydrocarbon profiles.

This clinical study is composed of two different trials. In the first we investigated and described the perioperative stress response in dogs undergoing elective orchiectomy and ovariohysterectomy. In the second trial we evaluated the efficacy of a commercial dog synthetic appeasing pheromone for the control of the perioperative stress response. The aim of this trial is to describe the behavioural, neuroendocrine, immune and acute phase stress responses in dogs undergoing elective surgery in normal clinical practice conditions. Sixteen dogs were submitted to elective orchiectomy or ovariohysterectomy using a standardized surgical protocol. Each animal was confined to the Intensive Care Unit during pre- and post-surgery, and its perioperative behavioural, neuroendocrine, immune and acute phase responses studied. Behavioural categories, cortisol, prolactin, white blood cells, C-reactive protein and haptoglobin variations were evaluated. Values at different times were compared with basal values shown by the dog in its usual environment. Communicative and explorative behaviours showed high pre-surgery occurrence and were inhibited post-surgery. Decreases in post-surgery activity, interactive behaviours and changes in waking/sleeping patterns were observed. Compared to basal values, cortisol showed a significant increase both during pre- and post-surgery confinement in the ICU cage, being the most sensitive marker of psychological stress. Prolactin values were characterised by a significant decrease at early post-surgery time. The immune response was characterised by long-term neutrophilia and monocytosis, but by short¬term lymphopenia and eosinopenia, limited to early post-operative period. With regard to the acute phase response, both C-reactive protein and haptoglobin showed a post-surgery long-term increase. Changes in behavioural, hematological and biochemical markers showed that perioperative stress represents a major challenge for dog welfare. Surgery, together with its related perioperative procedures, is known to be a major source of stress for dogs. Both psychological and physical stressors activate the behavioural, neuroendocrine, immune and acute phase responses in dogs undergoing elective surgery. A synthetic dog¬appeasing pheromone (DAP) has been marketed to control dog stress response. Its efficacy has been demonstrated recently in many different contexts. We therefore hypothesized that it could also control the perioperative stress response in dogs undergoing elective surgery. For this purpose we studied the behavioural, neuroendocrine, immune and acute phase responses in dogs undergoing elective orchiectomy or ovariohysterectomy. We analyzed the pre- and postoperative variations in behavioural categories, cortisol, glucose, prolactin, white blood cells, haptoglobin and C-reactive protein. A standardised surgery setting was used. Of the results obtained, the behavioural and the prolactin responses showed to be influenced by the DAP treatment. The dogs treated with the synthetic pheromone were more likely to be alert and visually exploring after surgery, and their prolactin response to perioperative stress was significantly lower (P ≤ 0.05), when compared with the animals receiving the placebo treatment. The HPA axis, immune and acute phase responses were unaffected by the treatment. These results suggest that the dog-appeasing pheromone modifies the behavioural and the neuroendocrine lactotropic perioperative stress responses in dogs undergoing elective surgery. Thus, the use of this product in a clinical setting could improve their recovery and welfare.

The aim of this work is to investigate Ant Colony Algorithm for the traveling salesman problem (TSP). Ants of the artificial colony are able to generate successively shorter feasible tours by using information accumulated in the form of a pheromone trail deposited on the edges of the TSP graph. This paper is based on the ideas of ant colony algorithm and analysis the main parameters of the ant colony algorithm. Experimental results for solving TSP problems with ant colony algorithm show great effectiveness.

Stargazers (Uranoscopidae) have two specialized characters- large volume of bile and a small-size brain. To explain why stargazers need large volume of bile, two hypotheses were proposed: (1) a function of the bile of stargazers is acting as the sex pheromone, and (2) bile enhances calcium uptake efficiency. The brain volume was measured, and the volumes of each part of the brain were also measured. The elementary investigations indicate that the stargazers have larger bile volume ratio and smaller brain weight ratio than other fishes reported in the present studies. The bile volumes are no significant difference between the female stargazers and the male stargazers, the bile volumes showed no monthly difference. Besides, the number of olfactory epithelium and the neuron density of the telencephalon in stargazers were not more than other fishes, the function of sex pheromone of bile can not be confirmed. The cranium hardness, bone density, and calcium content in stargazers are significantly more than other fishes. Most fish uptake calcium by the gill and the intestine from seawater or food. However, stargazers often hide in the sand and wait for the prey for most of the time, less water flow through the gills are expected. Therefore stargazers possibly uptake calcium through the intestine. Efficiency of the bile to aid calcium uptake has to be examined by experiments. The paraffin histology has been taken in various parts of the brain. Crista cerebelli is the center for sensing mechanical vibration; the volume of stargazer¡¦s crista cerebelli is higher than other fishes. Stargazers have large saccular otolith compare to the whole brain. Studies on the lateral line and acoustic sense of stargazers are new research topics. Furthermore, decrease in brain size in stargazers is for the purpose of reducing the oxygen consumption, so as to hiding in the sand. Stargazers are one of the fisheries species on western Taiwan coast. However there are very few studies on the stargazers in Taiwan; we should understand more about them in order to protect and consume the stargazers in a better way.

The European honey bee, Apis mellifera, is a primarily beneficial insect for mankind. It has been utilized by humans for thousands of years for the products and services it provides. Crop pollination and honey production are two of the most economically beneficial activities of the honey bee. Though they have been important for many centuries and immeasurable amounts of effort have been expended investigating the methods and means to harness their natural abilities, a far lesser amount of attention has been directed towards exploring their molecular makeup. These experiments involve identifying modification of gene transcription as a result of exposure to a pheromone or a parasite. This data will provide information on the general types of transcripts involved in the biochemical response of the honey bee to the two stimuli and will also provide specific candidates for further investigation of their potential role in downstream behavioral events.

The pecan nut casebearer, Acrobasis nuxvorella Neunzig (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) is the most damaging insect pest of pecan, Carya illinoinensis (Wang) K. Koch (Fagales: Juglandaceae). Two sex pheromones have been identified for this species and are currently being used to assist pecan growers in the timing of insecticide applications. The discovery that there are two pheromone types produced by A. nuxvorella has led to complications in the implementation of pheromone monitoring programs. One pheromone (referred to as standard) is attractive to moths in the southern US, but not in Mexico. The other pheromone (referred to as Mexican) is attractive to moths in the southern US and in Mexico. Because most male lepidopterans respond only to a specific pheromone, it was suspected that there were two pheromone strains of A. nuxvorella, one exclusively present in the northern distribution of A. nuxvorella (US strain) and the other widely distributed from Sonora, Chihuahua, and Durango in Northern Mexico to Texas, Georgia, and Oklahoma in the US (Mexican strain). In order to confirm the existence of the two alleged pheromone strains, AFLP markers were obtained and analyzed, male response to pheromones was observed and phenological differences were assessed. Additionally, the relative abundance of each of the two pherotypes was evaluated and the population structure of this pest across its geographic distribution was determined. Results of genetic analysis show that the genetic differentiation between these insects is not explained by pheromone type. This information is further supported by a pheromone assay in which a large proportion of US collected A. nuxvorella males and Mexican collected A. nuxvorella males chose both pheromones when tested multiple times. Furthermore, no phenological differences were detected between the two pherotypes in the US, although significantly more male A. nuxvorella in the US are attracted to field-deployed pheromone traps baited with the standard pheromone than the Mexican pheromone. Finally, population genetic analyses indicate a high degree of genetic structure in A. nuxvorella across its geographic distribution, with the genetically distinct populations occurring in areas where A. nuxvorella is not native, but has been introduced.