Este estudo teve o objetivo de avaliar a eficiência do probiótico em manter o equilíbrio da microbiota intestinal de aves submetidas à antibioticoterapia e as associações com o desempenho. Os tratamentos dietéticos consistiram de uma dieta basal única, à base de milho e farelo de soja, à qual foi acrescido ou não o probiótico Bacillus subtillis (100 g/ton de ração), na concentração de 10? UFC/g. Por 3 dias consecutivos a partir de 21 dias de idade, as aves foram submetidas à antibioticoterapia via água de bebida consistindo de 200 ppm de bacitracina metileno dissacilato (efeito em bactérias Gram-positivas ) e 1000 ppm de sulfato de neomicina (efeito em bactérias Gram-negativas). O experimento foi conduzido com frangos de corte no período de 1 a 42 dias, sendo que de 1 a 21 dias as aves receberam somente o tratamento dietético, e, a partir de 21 dias, as aves receberam os tratamentos dietético e terapêutico. Aos 2, 4 e 6 dias após a antibioticoterapia, 3 aves de cada unidade experimental foram sacrificadas para coleta do conteúdo do intestino delgado e do ceco e obtidos \"pools\" dos conteúdos intestinais em cada unidade experimental para constituir uma repetição. O experimento foi realizado com 4 tratamentos, obedecendo a esquema fatorial 2×2 para as variáveis de desempenho (com e sem probiótico × com e sem antibioticoterapia) com 9 repetições e 2×2×3 para as análises da microbiota intestinal (com e sem probiótico na dieta × com e sem antibioticoterapia × 2, 4 e 6 dias após a antibioticoterapia) com 3 repetições. O DNA total foi extraído dos conteúdos do intestino delgado e ceco para o isolamento da região 16S rRNA e análise das comunidades bacterianas. As técnicas moleculares utilizadas foram a de fingerprinting Terminal Restriction Length Polymorphism (T-RFLP), PCR em tempo real (qPCR) e o sequenciamento, sendo que, para todas as técnicas, a região alvo foi o gene 16S rRNA. Os fatores dietético e terapêutico modularam a microbiota intestinal de forma independente. Houve efeito dos fatores probiótico e antibioticoterapia nos grupos predominantes do conteúdo do intestino, desde a classificação taxonômica filo até a classificação gênero. Alguns grupos filogenéticos foram igualmente afetados pelos 2 fatores em estudo, enquanto que outros grupos foram alterados de forma específica em função do probiótico ou antibioticoterapia. A antibioticoterapia, assim como o probiótico dietético, reduziu o número de unidades taxonômicas operacionais (OTUs) no conteúdo do ceco. O melhor desempenho observado nas aves alimentadas com dietas com probiótico provavelmente está relacionado às alterações observadas na estrutura das comunidades intestinais e grupos filogenéticos, como o acréscimo de Lactobacillus e redução de Clostridiales. A antibioticoterapia modificou a estrutura da comunidade bacteriana, entretanto não provocou queda no desempenho das aves. A comunidade bacteriana do intestino das aves medicadas e suplementadas com probiótico apresentou alta similaridade com a comunidade das aves que receberam apenas probiótico dietético, indicando a possível recuperação da microbiota intestinal aos 6 dias após a antibioticoterapia. / The purpose of this study was to verify the ability of a probiotic in the feed to maintain the stability of gut microbiota in chickens after antibiotic therapy and associations with the performance. The dietary treatments consisted of a cornsoybean meal basal diet that was supplemented or not with a probiotic (Bacillus subtilis) in the concentration of 3×109 cfu/kg of feed. Starting on day 21, the birds were submitted to the antibiotic therapy consisting of 200 ppm of bacitracin methylene disalicylate (for Gram-positive bacteria) and 1,000 ppm of neomycin sulfate (for Gram-negative bacteria) in the drinking water, during 3 days. The trial was conducted with broiler chickens from 1 to 42 days of age, however, from 1 to 21 days, the chickens received only the dietary treatment, and after of the 21 days, the birds received the dietary and therapeutic treatments. At 2, 4 and 6 days after the antibiotic therapy, three chickens from each experimental unit were euthanized and the contents of the small intestine and ceca were collected and pooled by pen. The trial was conducted in a completely randomized design with 4 treatments and 9 replicates in a 2×2 factorial arrangement for performance characteristics (with and without probiotic × with and without antibiotic therapy), and in a 2×2×3 factorial arrangement for gut microbiota (with and without probiotic × with and without antibiotic therapy × 2, 4 and 6 days after of the antibiotic therapy) with 3 replicates per treatment. The DNA was extracted from the contents of the small intestine and ceca to isolate the 16S r RNA and study of the bacterial communities. The molecular techniques used were the terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism (TRFLP), quantitative PCR (qPCR) and sequencing, considering the 16S rRNA -genetargeted. The dietary and therapeutic factors modulated the gut microbiota independently. The probiotic and antibiotic therapy affected the main groups within of the gut content from the phylogenetic classification at the phylum level until the phylogenetic classification at the genera level. Some phylogenetic groups were equally affected by the two factors while other groups were changed in a distinct form depending on of the probiotic or antibiotic therapy. The antibiotic therapy and dietary probiotic decreased the number of taxonomic operational unit (OTUs) in cecal content. The improved performance observed in birds supplemented with probiotic was probably related to changes in the structure of intestinal bacterial communities and phylogenetic groups such as higher Lactobacillus and decreased Clostridiales. Antibiotic therapy modified the bacterial community structure; however it did not cause loss of broiler performance. The gut bacterial community in birds medicated and supplemented with probiotic had high similarity with the gut community of birds that received dietary probiotic only, indicating the possible recovery of the gut bacterial community 6 days after the antibiotic therapy.

Este estudo teve o objetivo de avaliar a eficiência do probiótico em manter o equilíbrio da microbiota intestinal de aves submetidas à antibioticoterapia e as associações com o desempenho. Os tratamentos dietéticos consistiram de uma dieta basal única, à base de milho e farelo de soja, à qual foi acrescido ou não o probiótico Bacillus subtillis (100 g/ton de ração), na concentração de 10? UFC/g. Por 3 dias consecutivos a partir de 21 dias de idade, as aves foram submetidas à antibioticoterapia via água de bebida consistindo de 200 ppm de bacitracina metileno dissacilato (efeito em bactérias Gram-positivas ) e 1000 ppm de sulfato de neomicina (efeito em bactérias Gram-negativas). O experimento foi conduzido com frangos de corte no período de 1 a 42 dias, sendo que de 1 a 21 dias as aves receberam somente o tratamento dietético, e, a partir de 21 dias, as aves receberam os tratamentos dietético e terapêutico. Aos 2, 4 e 6 dias após a antibioticoterapia, 3 aves de cada unidade experimental foram sacrificadas para coleta do conteúdo do intestino delgado e do ceco e obtidos \"pools\" dos conteúdos intestinais em cada unidade experimental para constituir uma repetição. O experimento foi realizado com 4 tratamentos, obedecendo a esquema fatorial 2×2 para as variáveis de desempenho (com e sem probiótico × com e sem antibioticoterapia) com 9 repetições e 2×2×3 para as análises da microbiota intestinal (com e sem probiótico na dieta × com e sem antibioticoterapia × 2, 4 e 6 dias após a antibioticoterapia) com 3 repetições. O DNA total foi extraído dos conteúdos do intestino delgado e ceco para o isolamento da região 16S rRNA e análise das comunidades bacterianas. As técnicas moleculares utilizadas foram a de fingerprinting Terminal Restriction Length Polymorphism (T-RFLP), PCR em tempo real (qPCR) e o sequenciamento, sendo que, para todas as técnicas, a região alvo foi o gene 16S rRNA. Os fatores dietético e terapêutico modularam a microbiota intestinal de forma independente. Houve efeito dos fatores probiótico e antibioticoterapia nos grupos predominantes do conteúdo do intestino, desde a classificação taxonômica filo até a classificação gênero. Alguns grupos filogenéticos foram igualmente afetados pelos 2 fatores em estudo, enquanto que outros grupos foram alterados de forma específica em função do probiótico ou antibioticoterapia. A antibioticoterapia, assim como o probiótico dietético, reduziu o número de unidades taxonômicas operacionais (OTUs) no conteúdo do ceco. O melhor desempenho observado nas aves alimentadas com dietas com probiótico provavelmente está relacionado às alterações observadas na estrutura das comunidades intestinais e grupos filogenéticos, como o acréscimo de Lactobacillus e redução de Clostridiales. A antibioticoterapia modificou a estrutura da comunidade bacteriana, entretanto não provocou queda no desempenho das aves. A comunidade bacteriana do intestino das aves medicadas e suplementadas com probiótico apresentou alta similaridade com a comunidade das aves que receberam apenas probiótico dietético, indicando a possível recuperação da microbiota intestinal aos 6 dias após a antibioticoterapia. / The purpose of this study was to verify the ability of a probiotic in the feed to maintain the stability of gut microbiota in chickens after antibiotic therapy and associations with the performance. The dietary treatments consisted of a cornsoybean meal basal diet that was supplemented or not with a probiotic (Bacillus subtilis) in the concentration of 3×109 cfu/kg of feed. Starting on day 21, the birds were submitted to the antibiotic therapy consisting of 200 ppm of bacitracin methylene disalicylate (for Gram-positive bacteria) and 1,000 ppm of neomycin sulfate (for Gram-negative bacteria) in the drinking water, during 3 days. The trial was conducted with broiler chickens from 1 to 42 days of age, however, from 1 to 21 days, the chickens received only the dietary treatment, and after of the 21 days, the birds received the dietary and therapeutic treatments. At 2, 4 and 6 days after the antibiotic therapy, three chickens from each experimental unit were euthanized and the contents of the small intestine and ceca were collected and pooled by pen. The trial was conducted in a completely randomized design with 4 treatments and 9 replicates in a 2×2 factorial arrangement for performance characteristics (with and without probiotic × with and without antibiotic therapy), and in a 2×2×3 factorial arrangement for gut microbiota (with and without probiotic × with and without antibiotic therapy × 2, 4 and 6 days after of the antibiotic therapy) with 3 replicates per treatment. The DNA was extracted from the contents of the small intestine and ceca to isolate the 16S r RNA and study of the bacterial communities. The molecular techniques used were the terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism (TRFLP), quantitative PCR (qPCR) and sequencing, considering the 16S rRNA -genetargeted. The dietary and therapeutic factors modulated the gut microbiota independently. The probiotic and antibiotic therapy affected the main groups within of the gut content from the phylogenetic classification at the phylum level until the phylogenetic classification at the genera level. Some phylogenetic groups were equally affected by the two factors while other groups were changed in a distinct form depending on of the probiotic or antibiotic therapy. The antibiotic therapy and dietary probiotic decreased the number of taxonomic operational unit (OTUs) in cecal content. The improved performance observed in birds supplemented with probiotic was probably related to changes in the structure of intestinal bacterial communities and phylogenetic groups such as higher Lactobacillus and decreased Clostridiales. Antibiotic therapy modified the bacterial community structure; however it did not cause loss of broiler performance. The gut bacterial community in birds medicated and supplemented with probiotic had high similarity with the gut community of birds that received dietary probiotic only, indicating the possible recovery of the gut bacterial community 6 days after the antibiotic therapy.

Most of the species of the family Rubiaceae with flowers arranged in head inflorescences are currently classified in three distantly related tribes, Naucleeae (subfamily Cinchonoideae) and Morindeae and Schradereae (subfamily Rubioideae). Within Morindeae the type genus Morinda is traditionally and currently circumscribed based on its head inflorescences and syncarpous fruits (syncarps). These characters are also present in some members of its allied genera, raising doubts about the monophyly of Morinda. We perform Bayesian phylogenetic analyses using combined nrETS/nrITS/trnT-F data for 67 Morindeae taxa and five outgroups from the closely related tribes Mitchelleae and Gaertnereae to rigorously test the monophyly of Morinda as currently delimited and assess the phylogenetic value of head inflorescences and syncarps in Morinda and Morindeae and to evaluate generic relationships and limits in Morindeae. Our analyses demonstrate that head inflorescences and syncarps in Morinda and Morindeae are evolutionarily labile. Morinda is highly paraphyletic, unless the genera Coelospermum, Gynochthodes, Pogonolobus, and Sarcopygme are also included. Morindeae comprises four well-supported and morphologically distinct major lineages: Appunia clade, Morinda clade (including Sarcopygme and the lectotype M. royoc), Coelospermum clade (containing Pogonolobus and Morinda reticulata), and Gynochthodes-Morinda clade. Four possible alternatives for revising generic boundaries are presented to establish monophyletic units. We favor the recognition of the four major lineages of Morindeae as separate genera, because this classification reflects the occurrence of a considerable morphological diversity in the tribe and the phylogenetic and taxonomic distinctness of its newly delimited genera.

Chapter One: Raven's 1985 phylogenetic analysis of the Mygalomorphae placed a number of previously unrelated genera into the rastelloid family Cyrtaucheniidae. Although Goloboff's 1993 reanalysis of mygalomorph relationships retained the familial composition of the Rastelloidina it di not support cyrtaucheniid monophyly. This study resolves the issue of cyrtaucheniid monophyly within the context of the Rastelloidina. Using 71 morphological characters scored for 29 mygalomorph taxa we find that the Cyrtaucheniidae is polyphyletic and propose the following families in its place: Cyrtaucheniidae, Kiamidae (new family), Aporoptychidae (new rank), Ancylotrypidae (new family) and Euctenizidae (new rank). We also propose two new euctenizid genera, Apachella and Sinepedica, revise the taxonomy of the euctenizids of the Southwestern United States, and present a key for these six genera. In addition to the morphologically based phylogeny we test and refine the euctenizid intergeneric phylogeny using molecular data (mitochondrial 16S rRNA and COI genes and 28S rRNA nuclear genes). The results of the combined morphological and molecular analysis are used to construct a composite rastelloid phylogeny that is used to investigate biogeographical relationships, burrow entrance evolution, and homoplasy. Chapter Two: This systematic study of the predominately Californian trapdoor spider genus Aptostichus Simon, 1890 describes 28 species, 25 of which are newly described: A. atomus, A. improbulus, A. insulanus, A. icenoglei, A. ebriosus, A. muiri, A. cahuillus, A. luiseni, A. serranos, A. calientus, A. chemehuevi, A. shoshonei, A. pauitei, A. tipai, A. cochesensis, A. indegina, A. gertschi, A. kristenae, A. fornax, A. spinaserratus, A. brevifolius, A. brevispinus, A. agracilapandus, A. tenuis, and A. gracilapandus. Aptostichus stanfordianus Smith, 1908 is considered to be a junior synonym of A. atomarius Simon 1890. Using 72 quantitative and qualitative morphological characters we propose a preliminary phylogeny for this group. Based on the results of this phylogenetic analysis, we recognize the Atomarius, Simus, Hesperus and Pandus species groups. Additionally, our phylogenetic analysis indicates that adaptations favoring the invasion of the very arid desert habitats of southern California have evolved multiple times in the Aptostichus clade. The existence of both desert and non - desert species in three of the four species groups makes this genus an ideal candidate for the study of the evolutionary ecology of desert arthropods. Chapter Three: Aptostichus simus is a trapdoor spider that is endemic to the coastal dunes of southern California and is recognized as a single species on morphological grounds. Mitochondrial DNA 16S rRNA sequences demonstrate that populations from San Diego County, Los Angeles County, Santa Rosa Island, and Monterey County are extremely divergent (6 - 12%). These results are comparable to, or higher than recent reports of species - level differences in other invertebrate taxa. A molecular clock hypothesis shows that these four populations have been separated for 2 - 6 million years. A statistical cluster analysis of morphological features demonstrates that this genetic divergence is not reflected in anatomical features that might signify ecological differentiation among these lineages. The species status of these divergent populations of A. simus depends upon the species concept utilized. The time - limited genealogical perspective that is employed separates A. simus into two genetically distinct species. This study suggests that a species concept based on morphological distinctiveness in spider groups with limited dispersal capabilities probably underestimate taxonomic diversity. / Ph. D.