N-Acylethanolamines (NAEs), although are ubiquitous in plants and animals the occurrence of endocannabinoid ligands and the corresponding cannabinoid receptors was limited to mammals. Interestingly, bryophytes, unlike seed plants possess arachidonic acid (AA, 20:4) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5), which are fatty acid precursors for endocannabinoid ligands. Here, we show that the moss Physcomitrella patens contains ~24 and 7 % of AA and EPA, respectively. Using selective lipidomic profiling, we identified polyunsaturated NAEs, including N-arachidonoyl ethanolamide (anandamide/AEA/NAE 20:4) and N-eicosapentaenoyl ethanolamide (EPEA) and also their corresponding N-acyl-phosphatidylethanolamine (NAPE) precursors in various developmental stages of Physcomitrella. Quantification of various NAPE and NAE species indicated the abundance of unsaturated species over saturated. In all haploid developmental stages analyzed, NAE 20:4 levels contributed to ~ 30 % (~ 26 ng mg-1 lipid) of the total NAE while NAE 20:5 remained as a minor component (~ 5 %; ~ 4.5 ng mg-1 lipid). Exogenous application of AEA, EPEA and their corresponding fatty acid precursors (AA and EPA, respectively) inhibited the growth of gametophytes and protonemata in a dose-dependent manner. AEA has shown the exclusive effect on the F-actin dynamics at the apex of protonemal cells, which was similar to the effect of abscisic acid (ABA) on protonemal growth inhibition. Additionally, we identified moss ortholog for NAPE-hydrolyzing phospholipase D (NAPE-PLD) enzyme that was responsive to exogenous ABA. Putative PpNAPE-PLD was expressed in E. coli for further characterization. Our data demonstrate the occurrence of evolutionarily conserved NAE metabolic pathway in the moss, with the occurrence of AEA and EPEA.

Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Dissertation wurden Enzyme des Oxylipinstoffwechsels in P. patens funktionell und strukturell charakterisiert. Dafür wurden die bifunktionelle PpLOX1 und zwei AOCs (PpAOC1 und PpAOC2) ausgewählt. Mittels verschiedener biochemischer, bioinformatischer und biophysikalischer Methoden wurden diese Enzyme bezüglich Funktion, Aktivität und Struktur charakterisiert. Desweiteren wurden nach erfolgreicher Kristallisation von PpAOC1 und PpAOC2 die hochaufgelösten Röntgenkristallstrukturen beider Enzyme im Grundzustand sowie im Komplex mit Substratanalogen gelöst. Für PpAOC2 wurden dabei zwei verschiedene Bindemodi des Liganden beobachtet. Der Einfluß der Aminosäurereste Arg-345, Arg-638 und Tyr-851 auf den Reaktionsmechanismus von PpLOX1 wurde durch zielgerichtete Mutagenese und nachfolgende Analyse der Produktbildung durch die erhaltenen Varianten untersucht. Es wurden keine signifikanten Unterschiede bei der Umsetzung verschiedener Fettsäuren durch das Ausgangsenzym oder die Varianten R345L bzw. R638L gefunden. Dagegen zeigte die Doppelvariante R345L/R638L eine stark verringerte Menge an gebildeten Produkten. Demnach scheint zumindest das Vorliegen einer dieser beiden positiv geladenen Reste wichtig für die Umsetzung der Substrate zu sein. Möglicherweise wird die negativ geladene Carboxylatgruppe der jeweiligen Fettsäure durch elektrostatische Wechselwirkungen über Arg-345 oder Arg-638 gebunden. Die Variante Y851I bildete geringere Mengen von 12-ODTE, Keto-Fettsäuren und auch weniger Produkt als das Ausgangsenzym. Demnach scheint auch dieser Rest an der Katalyse beteiligt zu sein. Da aber für die Variante Y851F sogar ein erhöhter Anteil an 12-ODTE gefunden wurde, scheint der voluminöse und hydrophobe aromatische Ring, und nicht die Hydroxyl-Gruppe des Tyrosin, wichtig zu sein. Die gereinigten Enzyme PpAOC1 und PpAOC2 wurden für Aktivitätstest mit verschiedenen C20-Fettsäure-Hydroperoxiden verwendet. Beide Enzyme zeigten Aktivität gegenüber den 15-Hydroperoxiden von EPA und ETA, jedoch nicht von AA. Darüber hinaus besitzt PpAOC2, aber nicht PpAOC1, Aktivität für die 12-Hydroperoxide welche sich von AA, EPA und DGLA ableiten. Es wurden zusätzlich zu 11-OPTA bislang nicht beschriebene zyklische Verbindungen gebildet, deren chemische Struktur durch Fragmentierung mittels ESI-MS/MS aufgeklärt wurde. In den vorliegenden Studien zu PpAOC1 und PpAOC2 wurde das Glutamat an Position 18 jeweils durch Glutamin oder Aspartat ausgetauscht. Es wurde gezeigt, dass der konservierte Glutamatrest und seine negative Carboxylatgruppe in beiden Enzymen essenziell für die Katalyse ist. Dagegen wurde für die Variante R22L lediglich ein Einfluß auf die Aktivität in PpAOC2 gefunden. Im aktiven Zentrum von PpAOC1 werden zwei Wassermoleküle von vier Aminosäureresten koordiniert, während in PpAOC2 ein Wassermolekül von zwei Aminosäureresten gebunden ist. Inwiefern diese Wassermoleküle an der Katalyse beteiligt sind, konnte bisher nicht eindeutig geklärt werden.

N-acylethanolamines (NAEs) including anandamide are lipid derivative molecules, which play vital roles in physiological and developmental processes in plants and animals and mediate stress responses. In mammals, NAEs are synthesized from hydrolysis of their precursor molecule N-acylphosphatidylethanolamine (NAPE) by NAPE-specific phospholipaseD (NAPE-PLD). All NAEs including anandamide (NAE20:4) are hydrolyzed by fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) into free fatty acid and ethanolamine. To date, different NAEs including anandamide have been identified in Physcomitrella patens but its metabolic pathway remains undiscovered. It is hypothesized that NAE metabolic pathway in P. patens is conserved and is similar to that of other eukaryotic systems. To this extent, putative PpNAPE-PLD and PpFAAH were identified and cloned for heterologous expression and characterization. Expression of PpFAAH was further verified by Western blot analysis. Future studies will involve biochemical characterization of putative PpNAPE-PLD and PpFAAH, to establish the evolutionarily conserved nature of NAE functions in early land plants.

N-acylethanolamines (NAEs) with C12-C18 acyl chain are ubiquitous in seed plants and play a role in mediating abscisic acid (ABA)-dependent or -independent responses to stress. In moss Physcomitrella patens, using selective lipidomics approach, we recently identified the occurrence of anandamide or N-arachidonylethanolamide (NAE 20:4) and its precursors that were previously not reported in plants. Occurrence of anandamide in moss provides us with a unique opportunity to address if early land plants retained NAE-mediated signaling mechanism that is akin to animals but not to vascular plants. It is hypothesized that a distinctive NAE profile and metabolic pathway occurs in P. patens. To this extent, putative genes that might be responsible for anandamide metabolic pathway were identified and their expression levels were determined for three developmental stages of moss. The NAE metabolite levels and transcript levels for putative genes were higher in protonema stage and anandamide showed higher growth inhibitory effects, chlorophyll reduction, and putative gene induction than NAE 12:0, compared to ABA, when applied exogenously.

Since a proper balance between anabolic and catabolic reactions is essential for all eukaryotes, the basic mechanisms for regulation of the energy and carbon metabolism have been conserved throughout evolution. The moss Physcomitrella patens, which belongs to one of the basal clades among land plants, has many unique properties that make it an excellent plant model system. We have used a yeast two-hybrid system to identify novel possible regulators or targets of the moss Snf1-related kinases, previously shown to regulate energy homeostasis. The function of the identified interactors PpSki1 and PpSki2 was analyzed in order to better understand the biological role of plant Snf1-related kinases. The recently completed genome sequence of Physcomitrella was used in a comparative approach to study to what extent key enzyme and gene families involved in transport and metabolism of sugars and in regulation of the energy and carbon metabolism are conserved between mosses and vascular plants. It has long been known that transformed DNA can replicate episomally in Physcomitrella. We have now shown that such DNA can be rescued back into E. coli. Surprisingly, we found that the original plasmid can be recovered from moss transformants obtained with circular DNA. Plasmids rescued from transformants obtained with linearized DNA had been repaired either by homologous recombination or by cohesive end re-ligation. These findings suggest that methods using shuttle plasmids are feasible in Physcomitrella. Hexokinase, a key enzyme in the carbon metabolism, catalyzes the first step in hexose metabolism, but is also involved in sugar sensing and signaling. We have now made an initial characterization of the complete hexokinase family in Physcomitrella which is encoded by 11 genes. Two new types of plant hexokinases, types C and D, were found in addition to the previously described types A and B.

Plants produce a rich variety of natural products to face environmental constraints. Enzymes of the cytochrome P450 CYP98 family are key actors in the production of phenolic bioactive compounds. They hydroxylate phenolic esters for lignin biosynthesis in angiosperms, but also produce various other bioactive phenolics. We characterized CYP98s from a moss, a lycopod, a fern, a conifer, a basal angiosperm, a monocot and from two eudicots. We found that substrate preference of the enzymes has changed during evolution of land plants with typical lignin-related activities only appearing in angiosperms, suggesting that ferns, similar to lycopods, produce lignin through an alternative route. A moss CYP98 knock-out mutant revealed coumaroyl-threonate as CYP98 substrate in vivo and showed a severe phenotype. Multiple CYP98s per species exist only in the angiosperms, where we generally found one isoform presumably involved in the biosynthesis of monolignols, and additional isoforms, resulting from independent duplications, with a broad range of functions in vitro / Graduate / 2017-08-31

The Arabidopsis chitinase-like1 (Atctl1) mutant, pom1 is compromised in primary cell wall development, resulting in short roots when grown on high sucrose and shortened hypocotyls when grown in darkness. To better understand this phenotype and the evolution of AtCTL1 and its homologue, AtCTL2, we obtained a large number of CTL sequences and determined the phylogenetic relationships among them. Since microarray analysis had suggested a change in auxin response or homeostasis in pom1, I used the auxin reporter DR5::GUS in the pom1 background to assess changes in distribution. To assess whether the biochemical functions of AtCTL1 homologues in Arabidopsis and other plants are conserved, I transformed pom1 with AtCTL2 and CTLs from poplar (Populus trichocarpa x Populus deltoides clone H-11) and from Picea glauca (spruce) and assessed rescue of the pom1 phenotype. To further understand CTL expression and function, Arabidopsis and poplar CTL promoter::GUS fusions were also expressed in Arabidopsis, PopCTL1 overexpressed in Arabidopsis, and CTL expression down regulated in poplar by RNAi. Our results indicate that CTL genes represent an ancient family encoding proteins of conserved biochemical function. In dicots, represented by Arabidopsis and poplar) duplicated CTL genes are differentially expressed in conjunction with primary and secondary cell wall development, respectively. Mutation of these genes results in improperly formed primary walls in certain cell types in the case of AtCTL1, and an impairment in the differentiation of vascular bundles for AtCTL2. Overexpression of PopCTL1 in Arabidopsis seems to over stimulate the differentiation of vascular bundles, and our studies show that auxin distribution is altered in the Atctl1 mutant. Down regulation of PopCTL1 and PopCTL2 in poplar appears to phenocopy aspects of these mutations, resulting in secondary cell walls that appear to have less deposition of lignin and an accelerated production of secondary xylem respectively. While specific biochemical function(s) of CTL genes were not studied, potential functions are discussed.

The Arabidopsis chitinase-like1 (Atctl1) mutant, pom1 is compromised in primary cell wall development, resulting in short roots when grown on high sucrose and shortened hypocotyls when grown in darkness. To better understand this phenotype and the evolution of AtCTL1 and its homologue, AtCTL2, we obtained a large number of CTL sequences and determined the phylogenetic relationships among them. Since microarray analysis had suggested a change in auxin response or homeostasis in pom1, I used the auxin reporter DR5::GUS in the pom1 background to assess changes in distribution. To assess whether the biochemical functions of AtCTL1 homologues in Arabidopsis and other plants are conserved, I transformed pom1 with AtCTL2 and CTLs from poplar (Populus trichocarpa x Populus deltoides clone H-11) and from Picea glauca (spruce) and assessed rescue of the pom1 phenotype. To further understand CTL expression and function, Arabidopsis and poplar CTL promoter::GUS fusions were also expressed in Arabidopsis, PopCTL1 overexpressed in Arabidopsis, and CTL expression down regulated in poplar by RNAi. Our results indicate that CTL genes represent an ancient family encoding proteins of conserved biochemical function. In dicots, represented by Arabidopsis and poplar) duplicated CTL genes are differentially expressed in conjunction with primary and secondary cell wall development, respectively. Mutation of these genes results in improperly formed primary walls in certain cell types in the case of AtCTL1, and an impairment in the differentiation of vascular bundles for AtCTL2. Overexpression of PopCTL1 in Arabidopsis seems to over stimulate the differentiation of vascular bundles, and our studies show that auxin distribution is altered in the Atctl1 mutant. Down regulation of PopCTL1 and PopCTL2 in poplar appears to phenocopy aspects of these mutations, resulting in secondary cell walls that appear to have less deposition of lignin and an accelerated production of secondary xylem respectively. While specific biochemical function(s) of CTL genes were not studied, potential functions are discussed.

Today, recombinant expression of proteins is used for a variety of purposes. One of these is the production of allergens, which are vital components in allergy diagnostics. However, traditional expression systems such as ​Escherichia coli​ and ​Pichia pastoris​ might not have the capacity to express all proteins of interest. Thermo Fisher, which is a leading producer of allergy tests, has requested an evaluation of different microorganisms and their capacity for heterologous protein expression in order to expand their existing toolbox of expression systems. This summary was made through a literature study, where twelve organisms were evaluated. Six eukaryotic and six prokaryotic expression systems are compared based on their ability to properly glycosylate protein, need for specific culture conditions, safety, protease activity, duration, protein yield and protein solubility. The prokaryotic systems – Corynebacterium glutamicum​ , ​Lactococcus lactis​ , ​Pseudomonas fluorescens​ , Pseudoalteromonas haloplanktis​ , ​Ralstonia eutropha​ and ​Streptomyces lividans​ – are characterized by being easy to cultivate, operating in different temperature ranges and providing relatively high yields of recombinant protein. The eukaryotic systems – ​Aspergillus fungi, the green algae ​Chlamydomonas reinhardtii​ , the yeast ​Hansenula polymorpha​ , the parasite ​Leishmania tarentolae​ , the moss ​Physcomitrella patens​ and suspension-based plant cells – all have very different morphology and properties. In comparison with the prokaryotic systems, it can be concluded that they are generally better at folding and providing the correct glycosylation patterns for mammalian and plant proteins. However, they require more time and effort to establish a competent cell line. Furthermore, the resulting protein yield is usually less than for the prokaryotic systems. The conclusion can be drawn that no expression system is perfect. The solution is a toolbox, containing various expression systems and vector systems, providing the basis for successful expression of all kinds of complex proteins. Based on the evaluation of expression systems in this review, such toolbox can be obtained.