L'enregistrement géologique de Mars a préservé des minéraux indicateurs d'une altération par l'eau liquide active durant plusieurs centaines de millions d'années après la formation de la planète. La reconstitution de ces processus anciens est un enjeu majeur de la planétologie, l'évolution de la Terre primitive étant inaccessible aujourd'hui en raison du renouvellement de la croûte terrestre par la tectonique des plaques, le volcanisme et l'érosion. Cette thèse apporte plusieurs contributions à la compréhension des processus d'altération sur Mars primitive à travers des expériences d'altération sous dioxyde de carbone et l'analyse de données orbitales de spectrométrie visible et proche-infrarouge. Les résultats conduisent à un modèle de formation des sulfates martiens par l'altération combinée de silicates et de sulfures de fer, qui se révèle cohérent avec l'extension spatiale et temporelle limitée des sulfates. De manière concordante, l'étude des minéraux secondaires de la dépression d'Ismenius Cavus illustre que l'altération acide à l'origine des sulfates n'a pas concerné l'ensemble de la planète. Une seconde étude orbitale focalisée sur le plateau de Nili Fossae démontre qu'au moins une partie des argiles martiennes résulte de l'altération météorique. Cette conclusion est appuyée par une expérience d'altération de l'olivine en conditions martiennes simulées confirmant que les minéraux observés dans Nili Fossae et d'autres régions martiennes sont compatibles avec une altération sous une atmosphère de dioxyde de carbone plus dense qu'aujourd'hui, assurant la stabilité de l'eau liquide à la surface de la planète.

Le travail qui est présenté dans ce mémoire aborde différents aspects de la différenciation planétaire et particulièrement les processus pouvant se produire lors de la formation d'un noyau au centre d'une planète. Il traite également de l'évolution de matériaux chondritiques avec la pression, la température et les conditions d'oxydoréduction, les chondrites représentant une classe de météorites communément proposées comme matériaux constructeurs possibles des planètes telluriques de notre système solaire. Durant mon travail de thèse, j'ai étudié la minéralogie du manteau inférieur de la Terre ainsi que les interactions entre métal et silicates pouvant se produire très en profondeur jusqu'à la frontière noyau-manteau. Les principales techniques utilisées au cours de ce travail furent la cellule à enclume de diamants pour élaborer les échantillons à hautes pressions et hautes températures et la microscopie électronique analytique en transmission (MET) pour extraire les informations chimiques et cristallographiques de ces échantillons. L'étude des météorites a débuté après ma thèse grâce à la caractérisation minéralogique fine de trois météorites martiennes par MET. Une fois en poste à Marne la Vallée, j'ai pu continuer à explorer les phénomènes liés à la formation de noyaux planétaires en débutant des études à plus basse pression centrées sur l'incorporation de plusieurs éléments légers (Si, O et S dans un premier temps, puis C dans un second temps) dans le métal au cours de la ségrégation. J'ai co-encadré, avec François Guyot, la thèse de Julien Siebert sur cette thématique pendant laquelle nous avons été en mesure de démontrer la miscibilité du système Fe-S-Si à partir de 15 GPa et 2000°C. A travers à ce travail, j'ai appris à utiliser deux nouvelles techniques expérimentales : les presses multi-enclumes et piston-cylindre. Pour finir, le soufre s'est révélé être un élément de première importance dans de tels systèmes avec la formation dans nos échantillons de monosulfures de type ningérite MgS ou oldhamite CaS, deux phases bien connues dans les météorites à enstatite. Une étude détaillant les mécanismes de formation de ces phases CaS-MgS-FeS a débuté au cours de mon séjour au Lunar and Planetary Institute de Houston. Les matériaux constructeurs de la Terre, de Mars et de Mercure restent encore un sujet débattu. Il m'a ainsi semblé essentiel de comprendre l'évolution chimique, minéralogique et texturale de matériaux chondritiques (synthétiques puis naturels) oxydés et réduits soumis à différentes conditions de pression et de température. En effet, tous ces paramètres physiques évoluent avec la taille du corps parent et l'intensité des bombardements des planétésimaux tout au long de la différenciation planétaire. La thèse de Sophie Berthet que je co-encadre avec Kevin Righter a pour but de comprendre le métamorphisme d'une chondrite à enstatite.

The volatile inventories of the Earth and Moon reflect unique histories of volatile acquisition and loss in the early Solar System. The terrestrial volatile inventory was established after the giant impact phase of accretion, and the planet subsequently settled into a regime of long-term volatile exchange between the mantle and surface reservoirs in association with plate tectonics. Therefore, volatiles in the Earth and Moon shed light on a diverse array of processes that shaped planetary bodies in the Solar System as they evolved to their present-day states. / Earth and Planetary Sciences

Une caractéristique unique de l'environnement spatial de Mercure est le fort couplage qui existe entre la surface, l'exosphère, la magnétosphère et le vent solaire. Ce système peut être étudié par des méthodes de télédétection embarquées sur les missions spatiales telles que Mariner 10, MESSENGER et bientôt BepiColombo, ainsi que par les observatoires au sol. L'exosphère de Mercure est un milieu complexe avec seulement quelques espèces détectées jusqu'ici, dont l'hydrogène atomique H. H a seulement été détecté une fois par la sonde Mariner 10 en 1974-1975 et représente un traceur de l'interaction entre le vent solaire et la planète Mercure. L'instrument PHEBUS 'a bord de la mission ESA/JAXA BepiColombo vers Mercure est un spectromètre double canal EUV-FUV capable de détecter les émissions les plus faibles, comme H I Lyman-α 'a 121.6 nm. La première partie de cette thèse se concentre sur la modélisation radiométrique et la simulation des performances de PHEBUS. Pour préparer la calibration spectrale en vol et pendant la phase orbitale, un ensemble d'étoiles de référence est déterminé et évalué pour tirer partie au mieux de la résolution et du domaine spectral du détecteur. Des prévisions sur la possibilité de détection des raies d'émission exosphériques sont également données (science performance). Comme PHEBUS est basé sur SPICAV, le spectromètre UV de Venus Express, des techniques semblables de calibration spectrale peuvent être utilisées. Une étude des occultations stellaire de SPICAV est réalisée dans la deuxième partie de cette thèse. Les spectres des étoiles sont extraits, analysés et convolués avec la fonction instrumentale en vue de préparer les futures observations de PHEBUS. Les résultats sont disponibles dans la base de données de calibration du groupe de travail 'a l'ISSI Cross-calibration of past FUV experiments . En parallèle aux nouveaux instruments de grande sensibilité et à haute résolution spectrale, comme PHEBUS, le développement de simulations numériques est nécessaire 'a la compréhension de l'exosphère de Mercure. La troisième partie de cette thèse présente le modèle SPERO, premier modèle auto-cohérent 3D Monte Carlo dédié 'a l'hydrogène exosphérique de Mercure, prenant en compte toutes les sources et les pertes, tels que la désorption thermique, la photoionisation ou la pression de radiation solaire. La désorption thermique est par hypothèse la source dominante d'hydrogène exosphérique. La densité surfacique ainsi que les densités, températures et vitesses exosphériques sont calculées jusqu'à 8 rayons mercuriens. Une étude de sensibilité est effectuée en se basant sur les incertitudes dans les mécanismes de source et de perte, donnant lieu à des asymétries jour/nuit en densité et en température. En utilisant les densités calculées dans un modèle de transfert radiatif, il est possible de comparer les sorties de SPERO avec les données d'émission Lyman-α de Mariner 10, et d'anticiper le retour de données hydrogène grâce 'a l'instrument MASCS embarqué sur la mission MESSENGER de la NASA.

abstract: The Kuiper Belt Object Haumea is one of the most fascinating objects in the solar system. Spectral reflectance observations reveal a surface of almost pure water ice, yet it has a mass of 4.006 × 1021 kg, measured from orbits of its moons, along with an inferred mean radius of 715 km, and these imply a mean density of around 2600 kg m−3. Thus the surface ice must be a veneer over a rocky core. This model is supported by observations of Haumea's light curve, which shows large photometric variations over an anomalously rapid 3.9154-hour rotational period. Haumea's surface composition is uniform, therefore the light curve must be due to a varying area presented to the observer, implying that Haumea has an oblong, ellipsoidal shape. If Haumea's rotation axis is normal to our line of sight, and Haumea reflects with a lunar-like scattering function, then its axis ratios are p = b/a = 0.80 (in the equatorial cross section) and q = c/a = 0.52 (in the polar cross section). In this work, I assume that Haumea is in hydrostatic equilibrium, and I model it as a two-phase ellipsoid with an ice mantle and a rocky core. I model the core assuming it has a given density in the range between 2700–3300 kg m−3 with axis ratios that are free to vary. The metric which my code uses calculates the angle between the gravity vector and the surface normal, then averages this over both the outer surface and the core-mantle boundary. When this fit angle is minimized, it allows an interpretation of the size and shape of the core, as well as the thickness of the ice mantle. Results of my calculations show that Haumea's most likely core density is 2700–2800 kg m−3, with ice thicknesses anywhere from 12–32 km over the poles and as thin as 4–18 km over the equator. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Astrophysics 2015

abstract: Hydrogen isotope compositions of the martian atmosphere and crustal materials can provide unique insights into the hydrological and geological evolution of Mars. While the present-day deuterium-to-hydrogen ratio (D/H) of the Mars atmosphere is well constrained (~6 times that of terrestrial ocean water), that of its deep silicate interior (specifically, the mantle) is less so. In fact, the hydrogen isotope composition of the primordial martian mantle is of great interest since it has implications for the origin and abundance of water on that planet. Martian meteorites could provide key constraints in this regard, since they crystallized from melts originating from the martian mantle and contain phases that potentially record the evolution of the H2O content and isotopic composition of the interior of the planet over time. Examined here are the hydrogen isotopic compositions of Nominally Anhydrous Phases (NAPs) in eight martian meteorites (five shergottites and three nakhlites) using Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS). This study presents a total of 113 individual analyses of H2O contents and hydrogen isotopic compositions of NAPs in the shergottites Zagami, Los Angeles, QUE 94201, SaU 005, and Tissint, and the nakhlites Nakhla, Lafayette, and Yamato 000593. The hydrogen isotopic variation between and within meteorites may be due to one or more processes including: interaction with the martian atmosphere, magmatic degassing, subsolidus alteration (including shock), and/or terrestrial contamination. Taking into consideration the effects of these processes, the hydrogen isotope composition of the martian mantle may be similar to that of the Earth. Additionally, this study calculated upper limits on the H2O contents of the shergottite and nakhlite parent melts based on the measured minimum H2O abundances in their maskelynites and pyroxenes, respectively. These calculations, along with some petrogenetic assumptions based on previous studies, were subsequently used to infer the H2O contents of the mantle source reservoirs of the depleted shergottites (200-700 ppm) and the nakhlites (10-100 ppm). This suggests that mantle source of the nakhlites is systematically drier than that of the depleted shergottites, and the upper mantle of Mars may have preserved significant heterogeneity in its H2O content. Additionally, this range of H2O contents is not dissimilar to the range observed for the Earth’s upper mantle. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Geological Sciences 2015

abstract: Finding habitable worlds is a key driver of solar system exploration. Many solar system missions seek environments providing liquid water, energy, and nutrients, the three ingredients necessary to sustain life. Such environments include hydrothermal systems, spatially-confined systems where hot aqueous fluid circulates through rock by convection. I sought to characterize hydrothermal microbial communities, collected in hot spring sediments and mats at Yellowstone National Park, USA, by measuring their bulk elemental composition. To do so, one must minimize the contribution of non-biological material to the samples analyzed. I demonstrate that this can be achieved using a separation method that takes advantage of the density contrast between cells and sediment and preserves cellular elemental contents. Using this method, I show that in spite of the tremendous physical, chemical, and taxonomic diversity of Yellowstone hot springs, the composition of microorganisms there is surprisingly ordinary. This suggests the existence of a stoichiometric envelope common to all life as we know it. Thus, future planetary investigations could use elemental fingerprints to assess the astrobiological potential of hydrothermal settings beyond Earth. Indeed, hydrothermal activity may be widespread in the solar system. Most solar system worlds larger than 200 km in radius are dwarf planets, likely composed of an icy, cometary mantle surrounding a rocky, chondritic core. I enhance a dwarf planet evolution code, including the effects of core fracturing and hydrothermal circulation, to demonstrate that dwarf planets likely have undergone extensive water-rock interaction. This supports observations of aqueous products on their surfaces. I simulate the alteration of chondritic rock by pure water or cometary fluid to show that aqueous alteration feeds back on geophysical evolution: it modifies the fluid antifreeze content, affecting its persistence over geological timescales; and the distribution of radionuclides, whose decay is a chief heat source on dwarf planets. Interaction products can be observed if transported to the surface. I simulate numerically how cryovolcanic transport is enabled by primordial and hydrothermal volatile exsolution. Cryovolcanism seems plausible on dwarf planets in light of images recently returned by spacecrafts. Thus, these coupled geophysical-geochemical models provide a comprehensive picture of dwarf planet evolution, processes, and habitability. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Astrophysics 2015

abstract: Both volcanism and impact cratering produce ejecta and associated deposits incorporating a molten rock component. While the heat sources are different (exogenous vs. endogenous), the end results are landforms with similar morphologies including ponds and flows of impact melt and lava around the central crater. Ejecta from both impact and volcanic craters can also include a high percentage of melted rock. Using Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera Narrow Angle Camera (LROC NAC) images, crucial details of these landforms are finally revealed, suggesting a much more dynamic Moon than is generally appreciated. Impact melt ponds and flows at craters as small as several hundred meters in diameter provide empirical evidence of abundant melting during the impact cratering process (much more than was previously thought), and this melt is mobile on the lunar surface for a significant time before solidifying. Enhanced melt deposit occurrences in the lunar highlands (compared to the mare) suggest that porosity, target composition, and pre-existing topography influence melt production and distribution. Comparatively deep impact craters formed in young melt deposits connote a relatively rapid evolution of materials on the lunar surface. On the other end of the spectrum, volcanic eruptions have produced the vast, plains-style mare basalts. However, little was previously known about the details of small-area eruptions and proximal volcanic deposits due to a lack of resolution. High-resolution images reveal key insights into small volcanic cones (0.5-3 km in diameter) that resemble terrestrial cinder cones. The cones comprise inter-layered materials, spatter deposits, and lava flow breaches. The widespread occurrence of the cones in most nearside mare suggests that basaltic eruptions occur from multiple sources in each basin and/or that rootless eruptions are relatively common. Morphologies of small-area volcanic deposits indicate diversity in eruption behavior of lunar basaltic eruptions driven by magmatic volatiles. Finally, models of polar volatile behavior during impact-heating suggest that chemical alteration of minerals in the presence of liquid water is one possible outcome that was previously not thought possible on the Moon. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Geological Sciences 2016

abstract: Impact cratering has played a key role in the evolution of the solid surfaces of Solar System bodies. While much of Earth’s impact record has been erased, its Moon preserves an extensive history of bombardment. Quantifying the timing of lunar impact events is crucial to understanding how impacts have shaped the evolution of early Earth, and provides the basis for estimating the ages of other cratered surfaces in the Solar System. Many lunar impact melt rocks are complex mixtures of glassy and crystalline “melt” materials and inherited clasts of pre-impact minerals and rocks. If analyzed in bulk, these samples can yield complicated incremental release 40Ar/39Ar spectra, making it challenging to uniquely interpret impact ages. Here, I have used a combination of high-spatial resolution 40Ar/39Ar geochronology and thermal-kinetic modeling to gain new insights into the impact histories recorded by such lunar samples. To compare my data to those of previous studies, I developed a software tool to account for differences in the decay, isotopic, and monitor age parameters used for different published 40Ar/39Ar datasets. Using an ultraviolet laser ablation microprobe (UVLAMP) system I selectively dated melt and clast components of impact melt rocks collected during the Apollo 16 and 17 missions. UVLAMP 40Ar/39Ar data for samples 77135, 60315, 61015, and 63355 show evidence of open-system behavior, and provide new insights into how to interpret some complexities of published incremental heating 40Ar/39Ar spectra. Samples 77115, 63525, 63549, and 65015 have relatively simple thermal histories, and UVLAMP 40Ar/39Ar data for the melt components of these rocks indicate the timing of impact events—spanning hundreds of millions of years—that influenced the Apollo 16 and 17 sites. My modeling and UVLAMP 40Ar/39Ar data for sample 73217 indicate that some impact melt rocks can quantitatively retain evidence for multiple melt-producing impact events, and imply that such polygenetic rocks should be regarded as high-value sampling opportunities during future exploration missions to cratered planetary surfaces. Collectively, my results complement previous incremental heating 40Ar/39Ar studies, and support interpretations that the Moon experienced a prolonged period of heavy bombardment early in its history. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Geological Sciences 2017

abstract: Affect is a domain of psychology that includes attitudes, emotions, interests, and values. My own affect influenced the choice of topics for my dissertation. After examining asteroid interiors and the Moon’s thermal evolution, I discuss the role of affect in online science education. I begin with asteroids, which are collections of smaller objects held together by gravity and possibly cohesion. These “rubble-pile” objects may experience the Brazil Nut Effect (BNE). When a collection of particles of similar densities, but of different sizes, is shaken, smaller particles will move parallel to the local gravity vector while larger objects will do the opposite. Thus, when asteroids are shaken by impacts, they may experience the BNE as possibly evidenced by large boulders seen on their surfaces. I found while the BNE is plausible on asteroids, it is confined to only the outer layers. The Moon, which formed with a Lunar Magma Ocean (LMO), is the next topic of this work. The LMO is due to the Moon forming rapidly after a giant impact between the proto-Earth and another planetary body. The first 80% of the LMO solidified rapidly at which point a floatation crust formed and slowed solidification of the remaining LMO. Impact bombardment during this cooling process, while an important component, has not been studied in detail. Impacts considered here are from debris generated during the formation of the Moon. I developed a thermal model that incorporates impacts and find that impacts may have either expedited or delayed LMO solidification. Finally, I return to affect to consider the differences in attitudes towards science between students enrolled in fully-online degree programs and those enrolled in traditional, in-person degree programs. I analyzed pre- and post-course survey data from the online astrobiology course Habitable Worlds. Unlike their traditional program counterparts, students enrolled in online programs started the course with better attitudes towards science and also further changed towards more positive attitudes during the course. Along with important conclusions in three research fields, this work aims to demonstrate the importance of affect in both scientific research and science education. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Geological Sciences 2017