Herbivore abundances are determined by a set of interacting factors that vary among different habitat types. Specifically, herbivore abundances in monocultures and polycultures may be governed by the same set of factors but with varying influences in the different habitats. In addition, monophagous and polyphagous herbivores may respond differently to the same set of influencing factors. I examined several abiotic and biotic factors in manipulated monocultures and polycultures of Borrichia frutescens in a west central Florida salt marsh. The experimental plots differed in both plant diversity and aboveground habitat structure to see how each component of diversity contributed to variability in the abiotic and biotic factors and how those factors were related to differences in herbivore abundances. The monoculture treatment involved clipping all above ground non-host plant material to achieve a host plant monoculture. The polyculture treatments involved pinning all non-host plant material to achieve a polyculture with reduced above ground habitat structure. The second polyculture treatment was a control in which the naturally diverse plots were unmanipulated. Two monophagous and one polyphagous herbivores were chosen for this study because of their abundance and availability in the field. The two monophagous herbivores on the host plant Borrichia frutescens were Pissonotus quadripustulatus (Homoptera:Delphacidae) and Asphondylia borrichiae (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) both of which have been well studied in the field where the current experiment took place. The polyphagous herbivore was Cyarda acutissima (Homoptera: Flatidae), a poorly known invasive from Cuba. Soil salinity and host plant leaf nitrogen content were the abiotic factors measured. Herbivore abundances, percent egg and gall parasitism by parasitoids, spider abundances on host plant stems and ground spider abundances were the biotic factors measured. Both salinity and host plant leaf nitrogen were significantly different among the different treatments with clipped plots having the highest salinity and leaf nitrogen content. Population densities of both of the monophagous herbivores were not significantly different between treatments. The polyphagous herbivore had significantly higher abundances in the pinned and control plots than in the clipped plots. Stem spider abundances were not significantly different among treatments. Ground spiders, however, were significantly more abundant in control and pinned plots than clipped plots. Parasitism of both monophagous herbivores was not significantly different between treatments but was generally higher in the control plots. The results suggest that for monophagous herbivores bottom-up and top-down factors act antagonistically in monocultures but for the polyphagous herbivore, the presence of multiple host plants is more influential in diverse plots even given the higher abundances of generalist predators.

Currently, we observe a growing number of researches that seek to unravel the causes, effects and possible biotechnological uses of the rhizosphere microbiota communities modulation in the complex interactions between plants and soil. We also know that the attack of herbivorous insects is a factor of considerable damage to agriculture and that has well established evolutionary relationships in natural systems. The present work tried to test some hypotheses about the direct connection between the rhizosphere microbiota and the insect pest attack. Beginning from the point that plants have well- established defense mechanisms against insects, it was verified that the rhizosphere microbiota seems to contribute actively to this system and thus to establish holobionte relationships. We had broad access to communities of the fungi and bacterial domain, through the new generation sequencing for rRNA 16S gene, region V3, and intergenic region ITS amplicons on soil, semi-soil and, insect gut samples from pest insects with general behavior (Order: Lepidoptera). Our results from the data analysis to Illumina Miseq sequencing outputs and, additional experiments, resulted in three articles presented here in chapters. In the first chapter, we discuss the modulating effect from the pest insect attack (Spodoptera frugiperda), on the Arabidopsis thaliana microbiota rhizosphere, for different physiological plant\'s stages. As a result, it was possible to discuss the differences between the modulation in the structure of bacterial communities and the modulation in the structure of the fungal communities after the attack of herbivorous insects. In the second chapter, we highlight the difference in the modulation of the bacterial community structure for different plant families. We used seedlings of Arabidopsis thaliana, Zea mays Sh2, Faseolus vulgaris, Solano lycopersicum and, Beta vulgaris exposed to the attack of Trichoplusia ni for one week. The rhizosphere microbiota analysis for each host plant groups, suggests that the influence of the plant species should be considered on the bacteria rhizosphere communities modulation after the insect attack. Besides, specific plant species may be less susceptible to rhizosphere modulation by insect attack. Another highlight was the microbiota rhizosphere effect in the biomass loss for plants sown on transplanted semi-soil. Based on the phenotypic data, we suggest the rhizosphere microbiota modulation after the herbivore may be involved in the plant biomass inhibition on the next seedlings generation. Finally, in the third chapter, we explore the Trichoplusia ni gut microbiota modulation through the microbial load obtained in the restricted feeding. The T. ni larvae from the same original population were divided into three populations. Each population was fed individually and restrictively with leaves of A. thaliana, S. lycopersicum or artificial caloric diet. We accessed the gut microbiota in T. ni after three generations of restricted feeding, and we verified that the gut microbiota in caterpillars of general behavior, could be altered due the obtaining of microbial load through alimentary diet. This modulation may be related to the degradation of metabolites that may be harmful to insect homeostasis. The gut microbiota of each population can also directly influence the food preferences of successive generations. In summary, all our results presented in each one of the chapters are important points that can help to clarify the complex relationships between plants/insects/microorganisms and, contributing to a better understanding of this holobiont system. / Atualmente observamos um crescente número de pesquisas que buscam desvendar as causas, os efeitos e as possíveis utilizações biotecnológicas da modulação de comunidades da microbiota de rizosfera nas interações complexas entre plantas e solo. Sabemos também que o ataque de insetos herbívoros é um fator de considerável prejuízo para a agricultura e que tem relações evolutivas bem estabelecidas em sistemas naturais. O presente trabalho procurou testar algumas hipóteses a cerca da relação direta entre a microbiota de rizosfera e o ataque de insetos praga. Partindo do ponto de que plantas possuem mecanismos de defesa contra insetos, bem conhecidos, foi verificado que a microbiota de rizosfera parece contribuir ativamente para esse sistema, e assim estabelecer relações holobiontes. Tivemos um profundo acesso á comunidades do domínio bactéria e fungi, através da tecnologia de sequenciamento de nova geração para amplicons do gene RNAr 16S, região V3 e região intergênica ITS em amostras de solo, semi- solo e intestino de insetos praga (Ordem: Lepidoptera) de comportamento generalista. Nossos resultados, resultaram em três artigos aqui apresentados em capítulos. No primeiro capítulo é discutido o efeito modulador da herbívora da praga agrícola Spodoptera frugiperda na microbiota de rizosfera de Arabidopsis thaliana em diferentes estágios fisiológicos da planta. Como resultados foi possível perceber que o efeito na modulação da estrutura de comunidades de bactérias é diferente do efeito na modulação de comunidades de fungos após o ataque de insetos herbívoros. Os efeitos são diferentes tanto em abundância relativa quando na diversidade para cada um dos domínios de microrganismos estudados. No segundo capítulo destacamos a diferença na modulação da estrutura de comunidades de bactérias para diferentes famílias de plantas. Utilizamos mudas de A. thaliana, Zea mays Sh2, Phaseolus vulgaris, Solanum lycopersicum e Beta vulgaris, expostas ao ataque de Trichoplusia ni durante uma semana. As análises da microbiota de rizosfera de cada um dos grupos de plantas hospedeiras, sugere que a influência da espécie vegetal deve ser considerada na modulação das comunidades de bactérias da rizosfera após a herbívora. Adicionalmente, determinadas espécies de plantas podem ser menos susceptíveis a modulação da rizosfera pela herbívora. Outro destaque foi o efeito da modulação da microbiota de rizosfera, na perda de biomassa de plantas semeadas em semi-solo transplantado. Com base nos dados fenotípicos das diferentes espécies de plantas avaliadas, sugerimos que a modulação da microbiota de rizosfera após a herbívora, pode estar envolvida na inibição da produção de biomassa vegetal na geração seguinte de plântulas. Por fim, no terceiro capítulo exploramos a modulação na microbiota no intestino de larvas de Trichoplusia ni através da carga microbiana obtida na alimentação restrita. Larvas T. ni de mesma origem foram divididas em três populações. Cada população foi alimentada de forma específica e restrita com folhas de A. thaliana ou S. lycopersicum ou dieta artificial calórica. Acessamos a microbiota do intestino das larvas, após três gerações de alimentação restrita e verificamos que a microbiota intestinal em lagartas de comportamento generalista, pode ser alterada devido à obtenção de carga microbiana por via alimentar. Essa modulação pode estar relacionada a degradação de metabólitos que podem ser prejudiciais à homeostase dos insetos. A microbiota intestinal de cada população também pode influenciar diretamente as preferências alimentares de gerações sucessivas. Em resumo, todos os nossos resultados, apresentados em cada um dos capítulos a seguir, são chaves no conhecimento e podem ajudar a clarificar as complexas relações entre plantas, insetos e microrganismos. Contribuindo assim para um maior entendimento desse tipo de sistema holobionte.

Baccharis halimifolia is host to many species of insect herbivore, including myrmecophilous aphids. Previous studies with B. halimifolia have revealed strong effects of competition by an early-feeding beetle, Trirhabda bacharidis, and nitrogen enrichment. The effects of ant mutualists, however, have not been evaluated for their potential influence on interspecific interactions among insects on the host plant. I have employed a series of experiments aimed at answering the following general questions. (1) How does the density of aphid-tending ants affect common insects on the host plant? (2) What are the relative effects of (a) competition from T. bacharidis, (b) nutrient enrichment, and (c) ant presence on common insects of the host plant? (3) How do the effects of exotic ants differ from those of native ants? The density of aphid-tending ants had positive effects on myrmecophilous aphids and aphid predators. However, given a choice between tended and untended aphid populations, aphid predators preferred to forage in the absence of ants. The density of aphid-tending ants also increased predation on leaf miners although this did not necessarily translate into reduced densities of leaf miners. Competition by early-season feeding of T. bacharidis negatively affected later-feeding herbivores but the effects of competition were unaffected by nutrient enrichment. Nutrient enrichment had positive effects on some herbivores, often only in the absence of early season herbivory. Trirhabda bacharidis larvae showed evidence of nitrogen and phosphorus limitation and suffered no predation by aphid-tending ants. Ant presence increased host plant survivorship from stemborer damage in 2004. Ant species identity was an important factor determining the densities of myrmecophiles and non-myrmecophiles on the host plant in addition to affecting the responses of herbivores to increases in host plant quality. Aphids were more abundant in the presence of the exotic Linepithema humile (Hymenoptera: Dolichoderinae) versus the native Camponotus floridanus (Hymenoptera: Formicinae). Aphid predators also had higher densities in the presence of L. humile versus C. floridanus. Only L. humile acted as predator on leaf mines although predation did not always translate into reduced seasonal abundances for both species of leaf miner.

<p>Plants commonly produce multiple, seemingly redundant defenses, but the reasons for this are poorly understood. The specificity of defenses to particular herbivores could drive investment in multiple defenses. Alternatively, genetic correlations between defenses could lead to their joint expression, even if possessing both defenses is non-adaptive. Plants may produce multiple defenses if putative resistance traits do not reduce damage, forcing plants to rely on tolerance of damage instead. Furthermore, resource shortages caused by herbivore damage could lead to compensatory changes in expression and selection on non-defense traits, such as floral traits. Natural selection could favor producing multiple defenses if synergism between defenses increases the benefits or decrease the costs of producing multiple defenses. Non-linear relationships between the costs and benefits of defense trait investment could also favor multiple defenses.</p><p>Passiflora incarnata (`maypop') is a perennial vine native to the southeast United States that produces both direct, physical traits (leaf toughness and trichomes) and rewards thought to function in indirect defense (extrafloral nectar in a defense mutualism with ants), along with tolerance of herbivore damage. I performed two year-long common garden experiments with clonal replicates of plants originating from two populations. I measured plant fitness, herbivore damage, and defense traits. I ran a genotypic selection analysis to determine if manipulating herbivore damage through a pesticide exclusion treatment presence mediated selection on floral traits, and if herbivore damage led to plastic changes in floral trait expression. To evaluate the role of selection in maintaining multiple defenses, I estimated fitness surfaces for pairwise combinations of defense traits and evaluated where the fitness optima were on each surface. </p><p>I found that resistance traits did not reduce herbivore damage, but plants demonstrated specific tolerance to different classes of herbivore damage. Tolerance was negatively correlated with resistance, raising the possibility that tolerance of herbivore damage instead of resistance may be the key defense in this plant, and that production of the two type of defense is constrained by underlying genetic architecture. Plants with higher levels of generalist beetle damage flowered earlier and produced proportionally more male flowers. I found linear selection for both earlier flowering and a lower proportion of male flowers in the herbivore exclusion treatment. I found that selection favored investment in multiple resistance traits. However, for two tolerance traits or one resistance and one tolerance trait, investment in only one trait was favored. </p><p>These results highlight the possibility of several mechanisms selecting for the expression of multiple traits, including non-defense traits. Resistance traits may have a non-defensive primary function in this plant, and tolerance may instead be a key defense strategy. These results also emphasize the need to consider the type of trait--resistance or tolerance--when making broad predictions about their joint expression.</p> / Dissertation

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Plant Pathology / Bikram S. Gill / H13, a dominant resistance gene transferred from Aegilops tauschii into wheat (Triticum aestivum), confers a high level of antibiosis against a wide range of Hessian fly (HF, Mayetiola destructor) biotypes. Previously, H13 was mapped to the distal arm of chromosome 6DS, where it is flanked by markers Xcfd132 and Xgdm36. A mapping population of 1,368 F2 individuals derived from the cross: PI372129 (h13h13) / PI562619 (Molly, H13H13) was genotyped and H13 was flanked by Xcfd132 at 0.4cM and by Xgdm36 at 1.8cM. Screening of BAC-based physical maps of chromosome 6D of Chinese Spring wheat and Ae. tauschii coupled with high resolution genetic and Radiation Hybrid mapping identified nine candidate genes co-segregating with H13. Candidate gene validation was done on an EMS-mutagenized TILLING population of 2,296 M₃ lines in Molly. Twenty seeds per line were screened for susceptibility to the H13-virulent HF GP biotype. Sequencing of candidate genes from twenty-eight independent susceptible mutants identified three nonsense, and 24 missense mutants for CNL-1 whereas only silent and intronic mutations were found in other candidate genes. 5’ and 3’ RACE was performed to identify gene structure and CDS of CNL-1 from Molly (H13H13) and Newton (h13h13). Increased transcript levels were observed for H13 gene during incompatible interactions at larval feeding stages of GP biotype. The predicted coding sequence of H13 gene is 3,192 bp consisting of two exons with 618 bp 5’UTR and 2,260 bp 3’UTR. It translates into a protein of 1063 amino acids with an N-terminal Coiled-Coil (CC), a central Nucleotide-Binding adapter shared by APAF-1, plant R and CED-4 (NB-ARC) and a C-terminal Leucine-Rich Repeat (LRR) domain. Conserved domain analysis revealed shared domains in Molly and Newton, except for differences in sequence, organization and number of LRR repeat in Newton. Also, the presence of a transposable element towards the C terminal of h13 was indicative of interallelic recombination, recent tandem duplications and gene conversions in the CNL rich region near H13 locus. Comparative analysis of candidate genes in the H13 region indicated that gene duplications in CNL encoding genes during divergence of wheat and barley led to clustering and diversity. This diversity among CNL genes may have a role in defining differences in the recognition specificities of NB-LRR encoding genes. Allele mining for the H13 gene in the core collection of Ae. tauschii and hexaploid wheat cultivars identified different functional haplotypes. Screening of these haplotypes using different HF biotypes would help in the identification of the new sources of resistance to control evolving biotypes of HF. Cloning of H13 will provide perfect markers to breeders for HF resistance breeding programs. It will also provide an opportunity to study R-Avr interactions in the hitherto unexplored field of insect-host interaction.

abstract: Land management practices such as domestic animal grazing can alter plant communities via changes in soil structure and chemistry, species composition, and plant nutrient content. These changes can affect the abundance and quality of plants consumed by insect herbivores with consequent changes in population dynamics. These population changes can translate to massive crop damage and pest control costs. My dissertation focused on Oedaleus asiaticus, a dominant Asian locust, and had three main objectives. First, I identified morphological, physiological, and behavioral characteristics of the migratory ("brown") and non-migratory ("green") phenotypes. I found that brown morphs had longer wings, larger thoraxes and higher metabolic rates compared to green morphs, suggesting that developmental plasticity allows greater migratory capacity in the brown morph of this locust. Second, I tested the hypothesis of a causal link between livestock overgrazing and an increase in migratory swarms of O. asiaticus. Current paradigms generally assume that increased plant nitrogen (N) should enhance herbivore performance by relieving protein-limitation, increasing herbivorous insect populations. I showed, in contrast to this scenario, that host plant N-enrichment and high protein artificial diets decreased the size and viability of O. asiaticus. Plant N content was lowest and locust abundance highest in heavily livestock-grazed fields where soils were N-depleted, likely due to enhanced erosion and leaching. These results suggest that heavy livestock grazing promotes outbreaks of this locust by reducing plant protein content. Third, I tested for the influence of dietary imbalance, in conjunction with high population density, on migratory plasticity. While high population density has clearly been shown to induce the migratory morph in several locusts, the effect of diet has been unclear. I found that locusts reared at high population density and fed unfertilized plants (i.e. high quality plants for O. asiaticus) had the greatest migratory capacity, and maintained a high percent of brown locusts. These results did not support the hypothesis that poor-quality resources increased expression of migratory phenotypes. This highlights a need to develop new theoretical frameworks for predicting how environmental factors will regulate migratory plasticity in locusts and perhaps other insects. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Biology 2012

A interação mutualística, espécie-especifica, vespas de figo-figueiras envolve dois processos antagonísticos, predação de sementes e polinização, realizadas por vespas da família Agaonidae. Sabe-se que a larva da vespa se alimenta de tecido da semente durante seu desenvolvimento, mas o processo pelo qual isto ocorre é pouco conhecido, não se sabendo até que ponto a larva depende do desenvolvimento da semente. Neste trabalho foi estudada a biologia larval de Pegoscapus tonduzi, polinizadora de Ficus citrifolia (Moraceae). O estudo foi realizado em plantas de F. citrifolia presentes no campus da Universidade de São Paulo em Ribeirão Preto/SP, durante o período de julho de 2007 a agosto de 2008. Para tal, quatro coortes de vespas foram estudas, nas quais cerca de cinco figos foram coletados em intervalos de dois dias, ao longo do ciclo de desenvolvimento larval. Os figos foram dissecados para observação das larvas e para a obtenção de ovários/galhas da planta para o preparo de lâminas histológicas. Os resultados mostraram que o processo de predação de sementes realizado pelas larvas de P. tonduzi é elaborado, com o desenvolvimento larval intimamente relacionado aos processos embriogênicos da planta. O desenvolvimento larval apresenta quatro instares, detectados pela mudança de tamanho e formadas larvas. A duração do ciclo de vida de P. tonduzi foi de 40 a 70 dias, aproximadamente, correlacionando-se negativamente com a temperatura ambiente no período. O ovo é depositado na região próxima à base do estilete, entre o nucelo e o tegumento interno do ovário da planta. Nessa fase, observase o surgimento do embrião vegetal, indicando que o ovário em que larva se desenvolve foi fertilizado. No segundo estádio larval, o inseto migra para a região micropilar e passa a se alimentar oralmente do endosperma da planta. Nesta fase, ainda, nota-se o desaparecimento do embrião vegetal, sugerindo que este é consumido pela larva da vespa. Os resultados sugerem a existência de um ajuste evolutivo fino entre inseto-planta, uma vez que o desenvolvimento da larva da vespa de figo parece depender da fertilização e conseqüente formação do endosperma. / The species-specific mutualistic interaction between fig trees and fig wasps engages two antagonist processes: seed predation and pollination, both achieved by wasps of the Agaonidae family. It is well known that fig wasp larvae feed on seed tissues for their development but the process itself is poorly known. Here is a study on the larval biology of Pegoscapus tonduzi, pollinator of Ficus citrifolia (Moraceae). The study was carried out between July 2007 and August 2008 at the Sao Paulo University campus in Ribeirao Preto, Sao Paulo State. Four cohorts of fig wasps were studied; for each cohort, about five figs were sampled each two days until complete larval cycle. Sampled figs were dissected for larvae observation and measurement, and flower ovaries/galls subsamples destined to histological study. Results showed that seed predation by fig wasps is a complex process, with larval development closely related to plant embryogenesis. Four larval instars were determined by changes on larva size and shape. Larval cycle extended from 40 to 70 days, showing a negative relation with environmental temperature. The egg is laid near the style insertion, between nucleus and inner integument of the flower ovary. Vegetal embryo was observed along with first larval instar, indicating that fertilization took place inside the ovary where larva develops. At second instar, the larva migrates to the micropilar region and begins to feed orally from endosperm. In this phase, the embryo disappears, suggesting that it is consumed by the larva. Our results suggest a fine tune evolutionary insect-plant adjustment, as fig wasp larvae seems to depend on ovary fertilization and endosperm development.

As plantas reconhecem e produzem substâncias voláteis específicas para a atração de parasitóides após o ataque de um herbívoro, num processo conhecido como defesa indireta. Contudo, a capacidade dessas plantas em processar e liberar novos compostos voláteis sob o ataque de um herbívoro não hospedeiro permanece ainda inexplorado. Em vista disso, o presente trabalho buscou investigar o efeito dos voláteis emitidos por planta de milho sob o ataque de uma praga até então não hospedeira (traça-das-crucíferas, Plutella xylostella) comparado ao daqueles emitidos por planta de milho sob ataque de um hospedeiro tradicional (lagarta-do-cartucho-domilho, Spodoptera frugiperda), sobre esses insetos e seus respectivos parasitóides, Apanteles piceotrichosus e Campoletis flavicincta. Os bioensaios com os parasitóides foram conduzidos em fotofase, sendo oferecidos a estes, voláteis de plantas de milho sadias, voláteis liberados nos intervalos de 0-1, 5-6 e 24-25h após tratamento em fotofase por dano mecânico ou herbivoria simulada, e voláteis liberados no intervalo de 5-6h após esses mesmos tratamentos em escotofase. Já os ensaios com as mariposas foram conduzidos em escotofase, sendo oferecidos a estas, voláteis de plantas de milho sadias, voláteis liberados nos intervalos de 5-6h após tratamento em fotofase por dano mecânico ou herbivoria simulada, e voláteis liberados no intervalo de 0-1 e 24- 25h após esses mesmos tratamentos em escotofase. Adicionalmente, foram testados, para P. xylostella, voláteis de plantas de couve-manteiga sadia, e para A. piceotrichosus, voláteis de couve-manteiga sadia, couve-manteiga danificada mecanicamente e couve-manteiga atacada por lagartas de P. xylostella. As fêmeas de C. flavicincta apresentaram atratividade para voláteis emitidos pelas plantas de milho no intervalo de 5 a 6 horas após tratamento com regurgito de S. frugiperda em escotofase. Curiosamente, não apresentou atratividade pelos voláteis liberados nesse mesmo intervalo de tempo após indução com regurgito em fotofase. As fêmeas acasaladas de S. frugiperda foram atraídas por voláteis de plantas de milho sadia e voláteis liberados nos intervalos de 5-6 e 24-25h após dano mecânico ou tratamento da planta com regurgito deste herbívoro. Porém, preferiu voláteis de plantas sadias aqueles de plantas tratadas com regurgito em fotofase. Esses resultados demonstraram que esses insetos são capazes de discriminar entre misturas de voláteis presentes em seu habitat natural, onde ocorre a relação tritrófica milho (planta hospedeira) S. frugiperda (herbívoro) C. flavicincta (parasitóide). Da mesma forma, na relação couve-manteiga (planta hospedeira) P. xylostella (herbívoro) A. piceotrichosus (parasitóide), as fêmeas de P. xylostella foram atraídas pelos voláteis de couve-manteiga sadia, assim como as fêmeas de A. piceotrichosus foram atraídas pelos voláteis de couve-manteiga atacadas por lagartas deste herbívoro. No caso da simulação de uma nova relação, milho (planta não-hospedeira) P. xylostella (herbívoro) C. flavicincta (parasitóide), tanto fêmeas de A. piceotrichosus, quanto de P. xylostella, não foram capazes de responder aos voláteis de plantas de milho sadias, danificadas mecanicamente e danificadas mecanicamente + regurgito de P. xylostella. A determinação desses mecanismos poderá ser útil para maior compreensão do contexto evolutivo entre plantas e insetos e obtenção de novos avanços no manejo e controle biológico de pragas. / Plants recognize and produce specific volatile substances that attract parasitoids after the herbivore attack, characterizing a process known as indirect defense. However, the ability of these plants in processing and releasing novel volatile compounds elicited by a non-host herbivore attack has been poorly explored. Regarding this, the current study aimed to investigate the effect of volatiles emitted by maize plants under the attack of a pest which is not a host so far, diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella compared to those emitted by a common host, fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda on the behavior response of these insects and their respective parasitoids Apanteles piceotrichosus e Campoletis flavicincta. The bioassays with the parasitoids were conducted during photophase and they were exposed to volatiles from undamaged maize, volatiles released at the time intervals 0-1, 5-6 and 24-25h after the treatment of mechanical damage or simulated herbivory during photophase, and volatiles released at the time interval 5-6h after these same treatments in scotophase. The bioassays with the moths were carried out in scotophase and they were exposed to volatiles from undamaged maize, volatiles released at the time interval 5-6h after the treatment of mechanical damage or simulated herbivory during photophase, and volatiles released at time intervals 0-1 and 24-25h after these same treatments in scotophase. Additionally, for P. xylostella volatiles from undamaged kale were tested while for A. piceotrichosus it was tested volatiles from undamaged kale, mechanically damaged and P. xylostella caterpillar damaged kale. C. flavicincta females were attracted to volatiles emitted by the maize plants at the interval 5-6h after the treatment with the S. frugiperda regurgitate in scotophase. Curiously, they were not attracted to volatiles released at the same time interval after the induction elicited by the regurgitate in the photophase. S. frugiperda mated females were attracted by volatiles from undamaged plants and volatiles released at time intervals 5-6 and 24- 25h after the mechanical damage or treated with the regurgitate of this herbivore. Nevertheless, they preferred the volatiles from undamaged maize to the plants treated with the regurgitate during photophase. These results demonstrated that these insects are able to distinguish among the volatile blends present in their natural habitat where it occurs the tritrophic relationship maize (host plant) S. frugiperda (herbivore) C. flavicincta (parasitoid). In the same way, in the relationship kale (host plant)- P. xylostella (herbivore) A. piceotrichosus (parasitoid), P. xylostella females were attracted by the volatiles of undamaged kale as well as the A. piceotrichosus females were attracted to volatiles emited by caterpillar-damaged kale. In the case of simulating a new relationship, maize (non-host plant) P. xylostella (herbivore) C. flavicincta (parasitoid), A. piceotrichosus females and P. xylostella were not able to respond to undamaged maize, mechanically damaged and mechanically damaged+ P. xylostella regurgitate. The determination of these mechanisms can be useful for a better understanding of the evolution context between plants and insects and for obtaining new advances in the management and biological pest control.

O estudo foi dividido em capítulos que incluíram diversos aspectos da ecologia química de insetos e espécies de Piperaceae como se seguem: O Capítulo 1 descreve as informações taxonômicas, a história natural dos insetos, as observações de campo e a organização das espécies hospedeiras de Piperaceae segundo as preferências alimentares dos insetos. Observou-se forte especificidade química de espécies de Coleoptera (Naupactus bipes) e Homoptera (Membracis foliata, Callocanophora sp., e Aethalium reticulatum) por Piper aduncum, P. gaudichaudianum, P. arboreum e P. hispidum que possuem ácidos benzóicos prenilados como produtos predominantes. As Lepidoptera (Quadrus u-lucida, Heraclydes brasiliensis e H. helicorides) constituíram-se num segundo grupo de insetos para o qual constatou-se forte especificidade. Nesse caso as espécies de Piperaceae, P. regnellii e P. solmsianum, são nitidamente acumuladores de neolignanas e/ou lignanas. Os Capítulos 2 e 3 (coleópteros - besouros e lepidópteros - borboletas, respectivamente) descrevem os resultados relacionados aos estudos das reações que ocorreram durante o processo de digestão de folhas de espécies de Piper, seqüestros de metabólitos secundários pelos insetos. O estudo de possíveis fatores atrativos presentes em óleos essenciais foram investigados mediante o uso de ensaios eletrofisiológicos. Foram observadas reações de desmetilações em lignanas tetraidrofurânicas, esterificação de ácidos benzóicos, hidrólise de amidas, reação do tipo ozonólise de lignanas, neolignanas e fenilpropanóides durante o processo digestivo das borboletas (larvas) e dos besouros adultos. Foram observados seqüestros de neolignanas das folhas e raízes de P. regnellii pelas larvas da borboleta Heraclides hectorides e ácidos benzóicos prenilados das raízes de P. gaudichaudianum pelas larvas do besouro Naupactus bipes. Os experimentos de EAG com antenas do besouro N. bipes indicou que os óleos de P. gaudichaudianum, P. regnellii e P. hispidum foram ativos, e tal comportamento foi confirmado por observações em campo, sendo que as respostas mais intensas foram observadas para as fêmeas em relação às respostas para os machos. A análise de GC/EM-EAD permitiu a determinação dos compostos bioativos como os monoterpenos &#945;- pineno, ß-pineno e ß-mirceno. O Capítulo 4 descreve as espécies de homópteros que têm especificidade por P. gaudichaudianum, P. arboreum e P. aduncum que são acumuladoras de ácidos benzóicos 7 prenilados. Outros possíveis fatores determinantes para tal especificidade foram atribuídos ao baixo teor de metabólitos secundários nas seivas, alto teor de micronutrientes, baixo teor de macronutrientes, ausência de lignanas ou neolignanas nas seivas, lignificação com predominância de resíduo siringila (S). O Capítulo 5 descreve a determinação e caracterização estrutural dos 49 metabólitos secundários envolvidos neste estudo. O Capítulo 6 descreve o estudo da estabilidade de lignanas tetraidrofurânicas realizado em função da rara ocorrência na natureza de isômeros com a configuração toda cis. O estudo da estabilidade para os dez possíveis estereoisômeros para a lignana tetraidrofurânica através do cálculo do funcional de densidade, B3LYP, com a base 6- 316(dp) mostrou que a configuração toda cis é de fato menos estável do que a toda trans. / The study was presented in six chapters that included several aspects of chemical ecology of insects and Piperaceae species as following: The Chapter 1 describes taxonomical aspects, natural history of the insects and field observation and the organization of hosts Piperaceae according to the observed feeding preferences of the associated insects. It was observed strong chemical specificity of Coleoptera and Homoptera species by Piper aduncum, P. gaudichaudianum, P. arboreum and P. hispidum which contain prenylated benzoic acids. The Lepidoptera showed preference for species containing neolignanas and/or lignanas such P. regnellii and P. solmsianum. The Chapters 2 and 3 (coleopterous - beetles and lepdopterous-butterflies, respectively), were addressed for the studies of biotransformation reactions, sequestration and attractive assays. The study of possible factors present attractions in essential oils was investigated by the use of electrophysiological essays. It were observed several reactions as esterification, hydrolyses and ozonolyse-type for lignans, neolignans, phenylpropanoids and amides occurring in from species of Piperaceae during the digestive process of the butterflies and of beetles. It was observed sequestration of neolignans of P. regnellii by larvae of Heraclides hectorides and prenylated of benzoic acids from roots of P. gaudichaudianum by the larva of the beetle Naupactus bipes. The experiments of EAG using antennas of the beetle N. bipes showed that the oils of P. gaudichaudianum, P. regnellii and P. hispidum were active and such results were in agreement with field observations and the most intense response was observed for the females in relation to the response for the males. The analyses of GC/EM-EAD allowed the determination of the bio-actives compounds as the monoterpenes &#945;-pinene, &#946;-pinene and &#946;-mircene. The Chapter 4 describes the homopteros species that have specificity for the P. gaudichaudianum, P. arboreum and P. aduncum accumulative of prenylated benzoic acids. Further determinant factors for specificity included: low percentage of secondary metabolites in saps, high percentage of micro-nutrients and low percentage of macro-nutrients, absence of lignans or neolignans in the saps, lignifications with predominance of siringyl residues (S) which confer a pattern related to Angiosperms. The Chapter 5 describes the determination and structural characterization of the 49 secondary metabólitos involved in this study. The Chapter 6 shows the study of stability versus natural occurrence of tetrahydrofuran lignans was carried out due to the rare occurrence of all-cis configuration. The study of the stability for the ten possible stereoisomers for the tetrahydrofuran lignans was through the calculation of the functional of density, B3LYP, with the base 6-316(dp), it showed that the all-cis configuration is less stable than the all-trans tetrahydrofuran lignans.

O sucesso reprodutivo das figueiras, e a consequente manutenção do mutualismo Ficus vespas de figo, depende do sucesso na polinização das flores pistiladas (produção de frutos) e do desenvolvimento de vespas polinizadoras em alguns ovários galhados (produção de vespas vetoras de pólen). No entanto, o período de receptividade das flores pistiladas para a polinização e oviposição pelas vespas polinizadoras de Ficus é curta, em relação à duração total do desenvolvimento do figo. A pequena janela temporal de receptividade pode ser um fator limitante na estabilidade do mutualismo, uma vez que o sucesso reprodutivo da planta será nulo se os figos não forem visitados por vespas polinizadoras durante o período de receptividade. O presente trabalho avaliou o papel das vespas não-polinizadoras galhadoras (Idarnes grupo flavicollis) durante o período de polinização Ficus citrifolia. Especificamente avaliou-se se as vespas galhadoras interferem (1) na atratividade do figo às vespas polinizadoras, (2) na receptividade do estigma e (3) no sucesso das vespas polinizadoras (produção de frutos e prole de vespas polinizadoras). O estudo experimental foi realizado no campus da USP Ribeirão Preto (21°10S; 47°48W), durante os meses de 02/2008 e 07/2009. Foi observado que os períodos de receptividade do estigma e de atratividade do figo duraram cerca de uma semana e não sofreram efeito da presença das vespas galhadoras. No entanto, o sucesso reprodutivo da planta foi afetado em situações de alta infestação das vespas não-polinizadoras, devido ao fechamento precoce do ostíolo causado pelo crescimento das galhas dessas vespas / The breeding success of Ficus trees and the maintenance of their mutualistic fig wasps depend on the successful pollination of pistilate flowers (seed production) and on the development of pollinating wasps in some galled ovaries (production of pollen vectors). The period during which pistilate flowers are receptive for pollination and oviposition is short compared to the total length of fig development. This narrow temporal window may be limiting to the stability of the mutualism, since the reproductive success of the plant will be null if wasps fail to find receptive trees. We investigated the role of the non-pollinating galler wasps (Idarnes group flavicollis) on the pollination period of Ficus citrifolia figs. Specifically, we tested if galler wasps interfere on (1) fig attraction for pollinating fig wasps, (2) length of stigma receptivity and (3) pollinating success (seed and pollinator offspring production). The study was carried out at the campus of University of São Paulo in Ribeirão Preto (21° 10\' S, 47° 48\' W) between february/2008 and march/2009. The periods of stigma receptivity and fig attractiveness lasted about one week and were not affected by the presence of galling non-pollinating fig wasps. However, the early ostiole closure caused by the growth of non-pollinating wasps galls may affect the plant reproductive success in high levels of infestation by these wasps