La taille de la zone plastique en pointe de fissure dans un matériau est directement liée au facteur d’intensité de contrainte pour une configuration donnée. Cette étude utilise la technique d’indentation avec une très faible charge afin d’étudier la taille de la zone plastique cyclique et monotone au voisinage de la fissure. La zone plastique est caractérisée par la relation entre la dureté, le module réduit, le travail élastique, le travail plastique, l’indice de plasticité et la distance par rapport à la pointe de fissure. Les essais sont menés sur une éprouvette CT pour un alliage d’aluminium 2024T351. Dans une étude complémentaire, le contour des zones plastiques en fond de fissure en mode mixte, le rayon minimum de zone plastique (MPZR) et la direction de la fissure initiale pour l’alliage d’aluminium 2024T351 sur un “Compact Tension spécimen” est déterminé en utilisant le logiciel Matlab. Nous avons calculé la forme, la taille de la zone plastique au fond de fissure, le rayon minimum de la zone plastique par rapport à l’angle de chargement et le facteur d’intensité de contrainte en utilisant le critère de Von Mises. L’étude est effectuée pour les divers angles de chargement. Nous avons constaté que le chargement en mode mixte (13 = 600) est le plus néfaste pour le matériau. / The plastic zone size associated with a propagating crack in a material is directly related to the stress intensity factor for a given configuration. This work utilizes the ultra-low-load indentation techniques to study the cyclic and monotonic plastic zone size at the fatigue crack tip based on the relationship between the hardness, elastic work, plastic work, plasticity index and the distance from the crack tip. The study is conducted essentially on the aluminium alloy 2024T351. In a second part of this work, we study the contour of mixed mode crack-tip plastic zones, the minimum plastic zone radius (MPZR) and the direction of initial crack for the aluminium alloy 2024T351 in a Compact tension specimen by using Matlab software. We have computed the shape, size of plastic zone at crack-tip and the minimum plastic zone radius with respect to the loading angle and stress intensity factor in linear elastic fracture mechanics for plane strain condition according to Von Mises yield criteria, the study is conducted for various loading angle. We found that the mixed mode loading (F36O°) can lead to earlier material fracture earlier than any other biaxial loading.

[pt] As estimativas do tamanho e forma da zona plástica, tradicionalmente usada na Mecânica da Fratura Linear Elástica (MFLE), são baseadas na suposição que o fator de intensidade de tensões KI (ou KII ou KIII) é o único parâmetro necessário para descrevê-las. Quando as zonas plásticas são obtidas a partir da solução de Inglis para o campo de tensões em volta de um furo elíptico, ou da solução completa de Westergaard para uma placa com uma trinca central, pode-se observar que as estimativas tradicionais subestimam a localização da fronteira elastoplástica. Isto acontece devido às estimativas tradicionais da zona plástica que não levam em consideração a influencia da tensão nominal no campo de tensões. Como na maioria dos casos a tensão nominal atinge 80% da tensão de escoamento do material é muito importante gerar estimativas melhoradas da zona plástica em volta da ponta da trinca, as quais são apresentadas neste trabalho. / [en] The estimates of the size and shape of the plastic zones, traditionally used in Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM), are based on the supposition that the stress intensity factor (SIF) KI (or KII or KIII) is the only necessary parameter to describe them. However, when the linear elastic stress analysis problem is solved in an Inglis plate, or the cracked infinite plate is analyzed using the stresses generated by the complete Westergaard function, it is verified that those traditional estimates significantly underestimate the position of the elastoplastic border. This happens because those solutions ignore the influence of the nominal stress on the stress field. However, as in most of the practical cases nominal stresses of up to 80% of the yielding strength are used, it is worthwhile to generate better estimates ahead for the plastic zones of the cracks, which are presented in this work.

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No description available.

The relationship between crack path and test method was examined by comparing the performance of adhesive-adherend combinations (six) in quasi-static fracture, mixed-mode fatigue, and creep crack growth. Crack paths in creep and quasi-static fracture were similar due to similar crack-tip plastic zone sizes in the epoxy adhesive even though the crack growth rates in creep were much smaller. Under condensed moisture and mixed-mode, creep and threshold fatigue tests produced interfacial failure. Under room-temperature dry environment, near threshold mixed-mode fatigue was interfacial, but was not in creep or quasi-static fracture. Smaller plastic zone size and crack path proximity to the interface that followed increased the sensitivity of near threshold, mixed-mode fatigue to surface properties. Therefore, the interfacial or cohesive failure of an adhesive system, which may judge the quality of the bond, can be a function of the test being conducted and may not be an absolute indicator of joint quality.

The relationship between crack path and test method was examined by comparing the performance of adhesive-adherend combinations (six) in quasi-static fracture, mixed-mode fatigue, and creep crack growth. Crack paths in creep and quasi-static fracture were similar due to similar crack-tip plastic zone sizes in the epoxy adhesive even though the crack growth rates in creep were much smaller. Under condensed moisture and mixed-mode, creep and threshold fatigue tests produced interfacial failure. Under room-temperature dry environment, near threshold mixed-mode fatigue was interfacial, but was not in creep or quasi-static fracture. Smaller plastic zone size and crack path proximity to the interface that followed increased the sensitivity of near threshold, mixed-mode fatigue to surface properties. Therefore, the interfacial or cohesive failure of an adhesive system, which may judge the quality of the bond, can be a function of the test being conducted and may not be an absolute indicator of joint quality.

[pt] A técnica de correlação digital de imagens (Digital Image Correlation, DIC) é uma técnica óptica de campo global que consiste na análise de imagens da superfície de um espécime antes e após seu carregamento para determinação de campos de deslocamentos e deformações. Neste trabalho foram usados um sistema DIC estereoscópico convencional 3D, para aplicações em campos de visão (macro) da ordem de 200mmx200mm, e um sistema DIC estereomicroscópico 3D, para aplicações em áreas tão pequenas quanto 1mm quadrado. Para a análise de deformações em campos com dimensões tão diferentes precisou-se desenvolver uma metodologia para controlar parâmetros da técnica DIC, tais como dimensões de pontos (speckles) impressos no espécime e tamanhos de subsets e steps usados para a correlação das imagens captadas. A seleção dos problemas estruturais para aplicação da técnica levou em conta não só a diversidade destes, como também o pioneirismo das aplicações de DIC a problemas nos quais podem ser gerados resultados que melhor ajudem na compreensão de suas facetas específicas. Assim, a técnica foi aplicada à medição de deformações em tubos com defeitos por suas vantagens de medição de grandes deformações e de visualização de regiões de interesse, sob a forma de campos globais de deformações. Na área de determinações de propriedades mecânicas de materiais compósitos, foram realizadas medições em espécimes não convencionais de resina epóxi reforçados por fibras de carbono ou fibras de vidro para determinação de suas propriedades elásticas. Por fim, foram realizadas medições em um espécime Compact Tension Specimen CTS de aço grau API 5LX60 contendo uma trinca e em espécimes com entalhes profundos (concentrações de tensões) constituídos por materiais distintos (policarbonato e alumínio), para obtenção de campos de deslocamentos e de deformações elastoplásticas. Nestas aplicações os resultados obtidos com a técnica DIC foram comparados com aqueles obtidos com modelos de elementos finitos (EF), com medições com extensômetros de resistência elétrica (strain gages) e com resultados analíticos publicados na literatura. Levando-se em conta as comparações feitas, a grande maioria dos experimentos realizados pode ser considerada satisfatória. Ao longo da tese foram descritas as adaptações, considerações e boas práticas consideradas necessárias para obtenção de bons resultados nas diferentes medições e para os diferentes aparatos experimentais utilizados. Estas recomendações serão bastante úteis para medições futuras ou mesmo para auxiliar na avaliação de confiabilidade de alguns resultados apresentados na literatura especializada. / [en] The digital image correlation (DIC) technique is a global field optical technique that consists in the analysis of images taken from the surface of a specimen before and after being subjected to a load, in order to determine displacement and strain fields. In the current work, both conventional 3D stereoscopic and micro-stereoscopic DIC systems were used, the former for applications in macroscopic fields of view (of the order of 200mm x 200mm), and the latter for applications in surface areas as small as 1mm square. For strain analysis in fields with such varied dimensions, the development of a methodology to control some parameters of the technique was required. Among the parameters to be controlled were dimensions of speckles printed on the specimen and size of the subsets and steps used in the image correlation procedure. The selection of structural problems to be analyzed by the DIC technique took into account not only diversity, but also the pioneering aspect in terms of DIC application to problems which can generate results that lead to a better comprehension of its specific issues. Hence, the technique was applied to the measurement of global strain fields in defective tubes, due to the advantages in measuring large strains and visualizing the regions of interest in such cases. For determination of the mechanical properties of composite materials, measurements were performed in non-conventional specimens made of epoxy resin and reinforced by carbon or glass fibers for evaluation of its elastic properties. Finally, measurements in a cracked Compact Tension Specimen (CTS) with degree of steel API 5LX60 and in specimens with deep notches (stress concentration) consisting of different materials (polycarbonate and aluminum) were carried out for estimation of displacement fields and elastoplastic strains. For those applications, the results were compared with those obtained from finite element models, from strain gages, and also with analytical results from the literature. Taking into account such comparisons, it can be said that the great majority of the experimental measurements was satisfactory. Throughout the current manuscript, the required adaptations, good practices needed to achieve reliable results from the different types of measurement and experimental apparatus, as well as other considerations, were carefully described. These recommendations will be quite useful for future measurements, or even to assist in the evaluation of the reliability of certain results presented in the specialized literature.

[pt] Apresenta-se uma formulação do método híbrido dos elementos de contorno para a análise de problemas planos de potencial e de elasticidade que, apesar de completamente geral para domínios finitos, é mais apropriada a aplicações de mecânica da fratura. A formulação exige integrações apenas ao longo do contorno e usa como soluções fundamentais, para interpolar campos no domínio, funções generalizadas do tipo Westergaard, inspiradas numa proposta feita por Tada et al. em 1993. Os conceitos de elementos de contorno são semelhantes aos conceitos apresentados por Crouch e Starfield em 1983, mas em um contexto variacional que permite interpretações mecânicas das equações matriciais resultantes. Problemas de topologia geral podem ser modelados, como ilustrado para domínios infinitos ou multiplamente conexos. A formulação é diretamente aplicável à solução de problemas de placas com entalhes ou trincas curvas internas ou de bordo, pois permite a descrição adequada de altos gradientes de tensão, sendo uma ferramenta simples para a avaliação de fatores de intensidade de tensão. Além disso, é possível determinar, num processo iterativo, a zona plástica ao redor da ponta de uma trinca. Esta tese tem foco no desenvolvimento matemático da formulação para problemas de potencial e de elasticidade. Vários exemplos numéricos de validação são apresentados. / [en] A particular implementation of the hybrid boundary element method is presented for the two dimensional analysis of potential and elasticity problems, which, although general in concept, is suited for fracture mechanics applications. The formulation requires integrations only along the boundary and uses fundamental solutions to interpolate fields in the domain. Generalized Westergaard stress functions, as proposed by Tada et al in 1993, are used as the problem s fundamental solutions. The proposed formulation leads to displacement-based concepts that resemble those presented by Crouch and Starfield, although in a variational framework that leads to matrix equations with sound mechanical meanings. Problems of general topology, such as in the case of unbounded and multiply-connected domains, may be modeled. The formulation, which is directly applicable to notches and generally curved, internal or external cracks, is especially suited for the description of the stress field in the vicinity of crack tips and is an easy means of evaluating stress intensity factors. The plastic phenomenon is taken into account around the crack tip through an iterative process. This thesis focuses on the mathematical fundamentals of the formulation of potential and elasticity problems. Several validating numerical examples are presented.

The main purpose of this project is to investigate different tool steels in terms of their ability to withstand material transfer buildup, so-called galling, occurring in SMF (sheet metal forming) operations. The ability to withstand galling is vital to optimize cost-effectiveness and increase the work tool’s effective operational time. This investigation studies four different tool steels, including a TiN-coating, with the intention of evaluating the microstructures, chemical composition and hardness effect on galling resistance in dry conditions using a slider-on-flatsurface (SOFS) tribo-tester which measures the coefficient of friction during sliding. An OP (optical profilometer) was used to measure the size and geometry of lump growth on the tool and damage on the work sheet. A scanning electron microscope (SEM) was used to identify the interacting tribological mechanisms exhibited at different stages during the slide. The SEM figures confirmed three different types of characteristic patterns exhibited in the tracks after tribo- testing which were categorized as mild adhesive, abrasive and severe adhesive damage. A SEM figure that illustrates a ragged contact surface and an obvious change in the sheet materials plastic behavior is in this report regarded as a sign of severe adhesive contact, the characteristics could possibly be explained by local high temperature and high pressure followed by a sudden pressure drop and creation of hardened welds or solders between the two surfaces which increase the frictional input needed for further advancement. Friction coefficients observed in the initial 100% mild adhesive stage were, μ=0,22-0,26 succeeded by abrasive SEM characteristics often in association with mild adhesive contact and friction values between μ=0,25-0,4 which where sometimes followed by severe adhesive SEM characteristics in 100% of the contact zone with friction values between μ=0,34- 0,9 respectively. The tool material that performed best according to the friction detection criteria was Sv21 closely followed by Sleipner (TiN coated) and Va40 (HRC 63.3). Unfortunately was the friction criteria, a significant raise in friction for defining a sliding length to galling, not adequate for dry conditions due to immediate material transfer succeeded by cyclic changes between partial or 100% abrasive+mild adhesive and severe adhesive contact. The mechanism that change abrasive wear in association with mild adhesive contact, (moderate friction input), to sever adhesive wear, (higher friction input), is dependent on lump shape (lump geometry) and can appear at comparably low speeds 0,04-0,08 [m/s] and low friction energy input (μ=0,34), the magnitude of the change in friction is therefore not always significant and hardly detectable on the friction graph. This was quite unexpected but could be explained by concentration of friction energy rater than the absolute amount. The problem with using friction graphs for galling evaluation was increased even further when a very small lump size and low corresponding rate of material transfer to the tool surface caused a sustainable high raise in friction (μ≈0,3→0,6) on a TiN-coated tool steel called Sleipner. A hardly detectable or similar friction raise for Sv21 and Va40 showed much larger corresponding lump size and rate of material transfer. This means that friction graphs demonstrate a clear problem with quantifying lump size [m3] and rate of  material transfer [m3/s]. Another phenomenon called stick slip behavior, material transfer and lump growth followed by a sudden decrease in lump size and transfer of material back to the work sheet, is also not possible to detect on a friction graph. Because a drop in friction can easily be a change in contact temperature and lump attack angle due to a growing lump and not a decreasing lump.   The conclusion, a friction graph is not suited for galling evaluation and ranking in dry SOFS conditions. A ranking should primarily be based on dimensional OP measurements of the cross section of formed tracks and scratches or preferably by repeated OP measurements of the tool surface during a single test, the last revel the exact lump growth history and true lump growth even in the sliding direction. / civilingenjörsexamen

Due to the increasing use of cyclically loaded cast aluminum components in automotive and aerospace applications, fatigue and fatigue crack growth characteristics of aluminum castings are of great interest. Despite the extensive research efforts dedicated to this topic, a fundamental, mechanistic understanding of these alloys' behavior when subjected to dynamic loading is still lacking. This fundamental research investigated the mechanisms active at the microstructure level during dynamic loading and failure of conventionally cast and SSM Al-Si-Mg alloys. Five model alloys were cast to isolate the individual contribution of constituent phases on fatigue resistance. The major constituent phases, alpha-Al dendrites, Al/Si eutectic phase, and Mg-Si strengthening precipitates were mechanistically investigated to relate microstructure to near-threshold crack growth (Delta Kth) and crack propagation regimes (Regions II and III) for alloys of different Si composition/morphology, grain size, secondary dendrite arm spacing, heat treatment. A procedure to evaluate the actual fracture toughness from fatigue crack growth data was successfully developed based on a complex Elastic-Plastic-Fracture-Mechanics (EPFM/J-integral) approach. Residual stress-microstructure interactions, commonly overlooked by researches in the field, were also comprehensively defined and accounted for both experimentally and mathematically, and future revisions of ASTM E647 are expected.