The aim of the study: by historical and prospective cohort studies to investigate the validity of postconcussion syndrome as a useful clinical entity in adults. The objectives of the study: 1. To determine the prevalence and degree of headache, dizziness and cognitive dysfunction as well as headache diagnoses after concussion and in controls with minor non-head injuries 2-3 years after the trauma and to make a comparison of these symptoms in both groups. 2. To evaluate the degree of all other symptoms attributed to the postconcussion syndrome 2-3 years after concussion and to compare it with the degree of the same symptoms experienced by controls. 3. To determine the prevalence and duration of acute posttraumatic headache. 4. To determine the prevalence and degree of symptoms of the postconcussion syndrome after concussion and in controls 3 months and 1 year after the trauma and to make a comparison of these symptoms in both groups. 5. To compare the severity of symptoms 1 year after the trauma between concussion patients and controls in relation to marital status and education. 6. To evaluate the influence of duration of unconsciousness and anterograde amnesia on the severity of headache and cognitive dysfunction. The present study was unable to confirm the concept of the postconcussion syndrome as a useful diagnostic entity. The postconcussion syndrome has therefore little validity.

Concussion is a popular clinical topic that has been the subject of unprecedented recent media coverage. As concerns about the potential short- and long-term implications of repetitive head injury in sports such as football continue to mount, the proper clinical management of concussion seems to increase in importance. The days of ignoring the ''ding'' on the sideline are definitely over. A series of updated clinical evaluation and management recommendations from international experts are highlighted in this review. The clinical presentation of an acute concussion, both the typical and more subtle variations, may be evaluated with new validated sideline evaluation tools (eg, Sports Concussion Assessment Tool 2). In addition, the role of computerized neuropsychological and balance testing in the acute and ongoing evaluation are discussed, along with how they contribute to the return-to-play decision. Same-day return to play is outdated, and the relative insensitivity of current neuroimaging modalities to demonstrate structural damage is highlighted. New therapeutic interventions such as amantadine and cognitive rest may improve recovery time. The appropriate management of concussion typically results in a normal functional and neurocognitive outcome. The recommendations in this article may guide clinicians, with varying degrees of prior experience managing concussion, to increase the likelihood of an excellent outcome.

Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) affects approximately 1.7 million persons in the United States annually, 75% are categorized as mild (mTBI). Most persons who experience mTBI will recover, however an estimated 10% will develop Postconcussion Syndrome (PCS). Evidence supports a relationship between perceived stress, salivary cortisol, and depressive symptoms in persons after TBI; however, there are no known studies exploring these relationships in the PCS patient population. A sample of 17 men and women diagnosed with PCS were recruited from Southwest and Central Virginia. Data collection included the Rivermead Postconcussion Questionnaire, Perceived Stress Scale-10, Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression Scale and the PROMIS Emotional Distress (ED)- Depression Short form (SF). Salivary cortisol was collected with a SalivaBio Oral Swab Collection System. Data were analyzed with Wilcoxon Rank-Sum and Pearson’s Chi Square. Spearman’s Rank Order Correlation Coefficients were used to compare variables for correlation. We found a statistically significant relationship between stress and depression (Spearman rho=0.87; p <0.0001); however, we did not find a statistically significant relationship between stress and cortisol (Spearman rho=-0.11; p =0.6887) or depression and cortisol as measured by the CES-D (Spearman rho=-0.10; p=0.6989) and the PROMIS ED-Depression SF (Spearman rho= -0.40; p=0.1327). While perceived stress may impact report of depressive symptoms in persons diagnosed with PCS, much is unknown about the influence of other factors in the development of this syndrome. More research is needed to identify mechanisms behind the presence of PCS to further inform our understanding of this condition, and to apprise the development of nursing interventions.

Blast-related mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) is a common injury among Operation Enduring Freedom/Operation Iraqi Freedom (OEF/OIF) veterans due to the frequent use of improvised explosive devices (IEDs). A significant minority of veterans with blast-related mTBI complain of postconcussion symptoms (PCS) and cognitive difficulties, even years after the injury. Studies have suggested that these behavioral sequelae are primarily linked to mental health disorders such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). However, mTBI is associated with neural changes and the impact of these changes on behavioral sequelae is unclear. As such, this dissertation had three goals. First, this dissertation assessed whether the severity of PCS in blast-exposed individuals is associated with the extent of mTBI-related neural injury. Results revealed that individuals with mTBI with loss of consciousness (LOC) had significantly more white matter abnormalities than no-TBI controls and that these white matter abnormalities were spatially variable across individuals. Importantly, the extent of white matter abnormality was associated with physical PCS severity and mediated the relationship between mTBI with LOC and physical PCS. Second, this dissertation examined whether these white matter abnormalities were also associated with overall cognitive impairment. In light of the observed variability in white matter injury, a measure of overall cognitive status that takes into account heterogeneity of cognitive impairment was used. Results showed that the extent of white matter abnormality was associated with cognitive status and mediated the relationship between mTBI with LOC and cognitive impairment. Third, this dissertation examined performance and brain function in the context of an experimental measure of cognitive control known to be sensitive to residual effects of mTBI. Results revealed that although behavioral performance was similar across groups, the mTBI group had enhanced functional connectivity between brain networks important for task performance, suggesting a potential compensatory mechanism in mTBI. Together, the findings of this dissertation suggest that mTBI is associated with structural and functional connectivity alterations years after the injury. Further, this dissertation suggests that whereas structural connectivity changes may have negative behavioral consequences, changes in functional connectivity may serve as a compensatory mechanism for successful performance.

Η συχνότητα εμφάνισης του μεταδιασεισικού συνδρόμου μετά από ελαφρές κρανιοεγκεφαλικές κακώσεις στις ανεπτυγμένες χώρες κυμαίνεται από 40% έως 80% κατά τις πρώτες εβδομάδες μετά τον τραυματισμό. Ωστόσο, σχεδόν το 50% των ασθενών αναφέρουν συμπτώματα έως και 3 μήνες μετά και το 10-15% από αυτούς για περισσότερο από ένα χρόνο. Οι ελαφρές κρανιοεγκεφαλικές κακώσεις και το μεταδιασεισικό σύνδρομο αποτελούν σοβαρό πρόβλημα δημόσιας υγείας, μιας και το ποσοστό επαγγελματικής ανικανότητας που οφείλεται σε αυτά εκτιμάται από 12% για 2 μήνες έως και 20% για 1 χρόνο, με τον αντίστοιχο οικονομικό και κοινωνικό αντίκτυπο. Σκοπός της παρούσας μελέτης είναι να προσδιοριστούν τα χαρακτηριστικά και να εκτιμηθεί η συχνότητα εμφάνισης του μεταδιασεισικού συνδρόμου σε έναν ενήλικο ελληνικό πληθυσμό, ταυτόχρονα με την καταγραφή των δημογραφικών στοιχείων και των παραμέτρων που αφορούν αποκλειστικά στις ελαφρές κρανιοεγκεφαλικές κακώσεις στην ίδια πληθυσμιακή ομάδα. Υλικό-Μέθοδοι: Η προοπτική αυτή μελέτη πραγματοποιήθηκε στο Πανεπιστημιακό Γενικό Νοσοκομείο Πατρών, στη Δυτική Ελλάδα. Η συλλογή των ασθενών με ελαφρά κρανιοεγκεφαλική κάκωση ξεκίνησε τον Μάιο του 2006 και ολοκληρώθηκε τον Μάιο του 2008. Πεντακόσιοι τριάντα εννέα ασθενείς με ελαφρές κρανιοεγκεφαλικές κεφαλής συμπεριλήφθηκαν με τυχαία διαλογή στην μελέτη. Συνολικά, 223 ασθενείς (223/539: 41,5%) (άνδρες 63% και γυναίκες 37%) πληρούσαν τα κριτήρια του "Colorado Medical Society Guidelines" για τον καθορισμό της διάσεισης, με μέση ηλικία τα 30 έτη (εύρος: 18.5-57.5). Η παρακολούθηση των ασθενών συνεχίστηκε μέσω τηλεφωνικών συνεντεύξεων στους 1, 3 και 6 μήνες μετα-τραυματικά, οπότε ρωτήθηκαν εάν εμφάνισαν οποιοδήποτε από τα κοινά μεταδιασεισικά συμπτώματα (ICD-10 κριτήρια). Αποτελέσματα: Το ποσοστό του μεταδιασεισικού συνδρόμου στο τέλος του πρώτου, του τρίτου και του έκτου μήνα μετά τον τραυματισμό υπολογίστηκε σε 10,3%, 6%, και 0,9%, αντίστοιχα, δηλαδή 4-8 φορές μικρότερο σε σχέση με τις άλλες μελέτες. Το μεταδιασεισικό σύνδρομο βρέθηκε να είναι συχνότερο μεταξύ των γυναικών (17%) και μεταξύ των ατόμων με αιμορραγική διάθεση (26%), σε σύγκριση με τους άνδρες και τους ασθενείς χωρίς διαταραχές πήξεως, αντίστοιχα. Επιπλέον, το μεταδιασεισικό σύνδρομο παρατηρήθηκε σε υψηλότερα ποσοστά σε ανθρώπους που υπέστησαν επίθεση ή κακοποίηση, σε σύγκριση με άλλου είδους ατυχήματα καθώς και σε ασθενείς με μετατραυματική ανοσμία. . Συμπεράσματα: Τα αποτελέσματά μας βρίσκονται σε αντίθεση με προηγούμενες μελέτες άλλων ανεπτυγμένων χωρών, όπου η συχνότητα εμφάνισης του μεταδιασεισικού συνδρόμου ήταν αξιοσημείωτα υψηλή. Οι πολιτιστικές διαφορές όσον αφορά στα προσδοκώμενα συμπτώματα μετά την κάκωση, οι διαφορές στο νομικό πλαίσιο και το ασφαλιστικό καθεστώς μεταξύ των χωρών και η έλλειψη αξίωσης αποζημίωσης, θα μπορούσαν να εξηγήσουν το χαμηλό ποσοστό των χρόνιων συμπτωμάτων στους Έλληνες. Από όσο είμαστε σε θέση να γνωρίζουμε, αυτή είναι η πρώτη προοπτική μελέτη για τον καθορισμό της επίπτωσης του μεταδιασεισικού συνδρόμου σε Έλληνες ενήλικες και η πρώτη που καταγράφει δημογραφικά στοιχεία και παραμέτρους που να αφορούν αποκλειστικά στις ελαφρές κρανιοεγκεφαλικές κακώσεις. Τα συμπεράσματα αυτά , εάν επιβεβαιωθούν από μεγαλύτερες σειρές, θα μπορούσαν να εγείρουν ερωτήματα , όπως π.χ. ποιοι ασθενείς πάσχουν πραγματικά και εάν θα μπορούσε να αποφευχθεί η απουσία τους από την εργασία, μιας και το κόστος της χαμένης παραγωγικότητας λόγω του μεταδιασεισικού συνδρόμου στις ανεπτυγμένες χώρες φαίνεται να είναι ιδιαίτερα υψηλό. / The prevalence of postconcussion syndrome following mild traumatic brain injury in developed countries varies from 40% to 80% during the first weeks after injury. However, as many as 50% of patients report symptoms for up to 3 months and 10-15% of them for more than a year. Mild head injuries and postconcussion syndrome represent a very serious public health issue, as estimates of occupational disability range from 12% at 2 months to 20% at 1 year, with severe concomitant social and financial impact. The objective of this study is to determine the characteristics and estimate the prevalence of postconcussion syndrome in an adult Greek population and to reveal demographics and injury characteristics concerning exclusively mild head injuries in the same cohort. Material-Methods: This prospective study was undertaken in the University Hospital of Patras in Western Greece. Recruitment of patients with mild traumatic brain injury began on May 2006 and finished on May 2008. Five hundred and thirty nine patients (539) with mild head injury were randomly recruited. Overall, 223 patients (223/539: 41,5%) (male 63% and female 37%) met the inclusion criteria of the ΄΄Colorado Medical Society Guidelines΄΄ for concussion, with median age 30 years (range: 18.5-57.5). The patients had a follow-up through telephone interviews at 1, 3 and 6 months post-injury and were asked about having any of the common postconcussion symptoms (ICD-10 criteria). Results: The rate of postconcussion syndrome at the end of the first, third and sixth month post-injury, was estimated at 10.3%, 6%, and 0.9%, respectively, which was 4-8 time less than other studies. Postconcussion syndrome was found to be more frequent among women (17%) and among individuals with bleeding diathesis (26%), compared with men and patients without clotting disorders, respectively. In addition, postconcussion syndrome affected in higher rates people who sustained assaults in comparison with other types of accident and was also more frequent among patients with posttraumatic anosmia. Conclusions: Our results are in contrast with previous studies in other developed countries, where the prevalence of the postconcussion syndrome was remarkably higher. The cultural differences regarding symptom expectation and the lack of compensation might explain the low rate of chronic symptoms in Greeks. To our knowledge, this is the first prospective study to estimate the prevalence of postconcussion syndrome among Greek adults and also the first trial in recording demographics and injury characteristics concerning exclusively mild head injuries in the same cohort. If further studies confirm our results in the future, reasonable queries could emerge, such as which patients really do suffer and whether their absence from work could have been avoided, as the cost of the lost productive work time after mild head injuries is extremely high.

L’étude de la sexualité dans le contexte des maladies neurologiques est un domaine émergent qui nous permet de mieux comprendre les corrélats cérébraux et neurocomportementaux de divers aspects de la sexualité. Les changements au sujet de la sexualité sont fréquents à la suite de troubles neurologiques tels que les blessures de la moelle épinière, la sclérose en plaques, l’accident vasculaire cérébral, l'épilepsie et les traumatismes craniocérébraux (TCC). Compte tenu de la complexité de la sexualité après un TCC, celle-ci doit être analysée à partir d'une perspective biopsychosociale qui comprend trois facteurs interdépendants : a) les facteurs neuropsychologiques et psychologiques, b) les variables médicales et physiques, et c) les facteurs relationnels. L’objectif de cette thèse était d’étudier certains éléments de la sexualité auprès de personnes ayant subi un TCC afin de fournir des preuves empiriques pour contribuer à la validation d’une perspective biopsychosociale de la sexualité après un TCC. Trois études quantitatives originales ont été effectuées auprès de personnes ayant subi un TCC léger, modéré ou grave et ayant reçu des services de réadaptation post-TCC, et d’un groupe de témoins en bonne santé, tous vivant dans la communauté. Les groupes étaient comparables en ce qui concerne l’âge, le sexe, le nombre d’années de scolarité, le statut d’emploi et relationnel, et le revenu annuel. Les variables ciblant la sexualité, incluses dans cette thèse, étaient la qualité de vie sexuelle, le comportement sexuel à risque, et la sociosexualité (p. ex., les différences individuelles en ce qui concerne la volonté d’une personne à avoir des relations sexuelles sans engagement). Les variables neuropsychologiques et psychologiques incluaient les fonctions exécutives, la dépression et l’anxiété. Les aspects médicaux et physiques englobaient les symptômes postcommotionnels. Les facteurs relationnels comprenaient les attitudes envers l'infidélité. Les résultats démontrent que par rapport aux témoins en santé, les individus avec un TCC ont montré une diminution de la qualité de vie sexuelle, alors que les groupes étaient comparables sur le plan du comportement sexuel à risque, de la sociosexualité et des attitudes envers l'infidélité. Par ailleurs, les résultats ont montré une différence entre les hommes et les femmes sur le plan de la sociosexualité (p. ex., plus restrictive chez la femme). Chez les personnes ayant subi un TCC, une faible qualité de vie sexuelle était significativement associée à un nombre élevé de symptômes postcommotionnels, un comportement sexuel plus à risque corrélait avec une plus grande fréquence de symptômes dysexécutifs, et une plus faible acceptation de l'infidélité était liée à une sociosexualité moins restrictive. Les résultats de ces trois études soutiennent une perspective biopsychosociale de la sexualité après le TCC. Elles apportent des connaissances nouvelles en ce qui a trait aux domaines de la sexualité qui peuvent être touchés après un TCC, ainsi qu’à certaines variables neuropsychologiques et psychologiques, médicales et physiques, et relationnelles qui sont associées à ces changements. Les implications théoriques, ainsi que pour la pratique clinique et la réadaptation sont discutées. Les limitations des études sont présentées et des recommandations pour la recherche sont proposées. Le modèle biopsychosocial peut être utilisé comme une référence pour guider la recherche future dans ce domaine. D’autres études sur la sexualité et le développement d'interventions multidisciplinaires dans ce domaine pour les personnes TCC sont nécessaires. / The study of sexuality in the context of neurological disorders is an emerging area leading us to better understand the brain and neurobehavioral correlates of various aspects of sexuality. Changes in sexuality are common following neurological disorders, such as spinal cord injury, multiple sclerosis, stroke, epilepsy, and traumatic brain injury (TBI). Given the complexity of sexuality after TBI, it needs to be analyzed from a biopsychosocial perspective that includes three interrelated factors: a) neuropsychological and psychological factors, b) medical and physical variables, and c) relationship factors. The objective of this thesis was to study certain aspects of sexuality in individuals with TBI to provide empirical evidence to contribute to the validation of a biopsychosocial perspective of sexuality after TBI. Three original quantitative studies were conducted in individuals with mild, moderate, and severe TBI who received post-TBI rehabilitation services and in a group of healthy controls living in the community. The groups were comparable in age, sex, years of education, work and relationship status, and annual income. The variables targeting sexuality included in this thesis were sexual quality of life, risky sexual behavior, and sociosexuality (e.g., individual differences regarding the willingness to engage in uncommitted sexual relationships). Neuropsychological and psychological variables included executive function, depression and anxiety. Medical and physical aspects encompassed postconcussion symptoms. Relationship factors involved attitudes toward infidelity. The results demonstrate that compared to healthy controls, individuals with TBI showed lower sexual quality of life, while the groups were comparable in risky sexual behavior, sociosexuality, and attitudes toward infidelity. Furthermore, the results showed differences between men and women regarding sociosexuality (e.g., more restrictive in women). In individuals with TBI, lower sexual quality of life was significantly associated with the presence of post concussion symptoms; an increase in risky sexual behavior correlated with greater frequency of dysexecutive symptoms, and lower acceptance of infidelity was linked to a less restricted sociosexuality. The results of these three studies support a biopsychosocial perspective of sexuality following TBI. They provide new knowledge in the areas of sexuality that may be affected after a TBI, as well as some neuropsychological and psychological, medical and physical, and relational variables associated with these changes. The theoretical implications, as well as those related to clinical practice and rehabilitation are discussed. The limitations of the studies are presented and recommendations for research are proposed. The biopsychosocial model can be used as a reference to guide future research in this area. Other studies about sexuality and the development of multidisciplinary interventions in this area for individuals with TBI are warranted.