The precautionary principle has emerged as one of the most contentious international norms within international environmental law. Yet, despite the vexing conceptual uncertainties confronting the precautionary principle, it is repeatedly invoked by policy makers and incorporated within international and domestic environmental law and agreements. This thesis explores how the international norm of precaution comes to be translated from the international sphere to domestic public policy. The research utilizes the pathways framework, which suggests that there are three additional pathways in additional to the direct implementation of international rules in national law and policy - international norms and discourse, markets and direct access - through which actors, institutions and interests can influence domestic and firm-level policy change. The findings propose an explanation of why Canada came to adopt a particular version of the precautionary principle, also revealing the complex nature of norm transfer, the significance of multiple causal pathways of influence and the interactions arising along these pathways.

Native and Colonial Americans had vastly different approaches to the world, and viewed nature and other people in quite dissimilar ways. The concept of self is central to this project because personal values and attitudes toward others are grounded in agency - actions that emerge from the self and define the way that one treats his or her surroundings and everyone or thing in it. The way that one's self is perceived is necessarily communicated within the context of social settings. Situation in a world of other people (and of nature) requires that actions be weighed in accordance with agency. The very concept of what it is to have self is a key way to understand a world-view, because the values that are central to cultural communities have their locus within self. As such, the importance of defining to what or to whom one is agent must be addressed. The concepts of self that were fostered in members of tribes and early settlement communities contributed greatly to the world-views of their members, and consequently the treatment of their surroundings. One aim of Native American religions was to cultivate within tribal members the worthiness of respect harbored within beings of all sorts. Native American oral traditions established in members, from early on, the skill of actively listening to nature and the mindset that the earth and its inhabitants should be approached with care and respect. This was apparent in the treatment of nature, for personhood was extended to living creatures of all kinds, and even what we might regard as inanimate objects. Native Americans viewed themselves as vitally related to all other living powers of the world. These approaches to interacting with nature, combined with a word-view that was willing to accept a wide array of entities as beings, instilled a broad concept of self within Native American peoples. In contrast, based on traditional Western thought - foundationally that of Descartes and highly influenced by John Locke - Colonial Americans developed a very different concept of self from which members of this culture saw the world as hierarchical. As a result, selves turned inward and understood personal existence as other than, or separate from, nature. Persons were manifestly cognitive beings with moral agency, and only other beings with the same attributes should be afforded equal respect or regarded as having rights, as such. The thematic that developed as a result was, and still is today, founded upon the value of property ownership and the utilization of property and natural resources for production. Why is it important to look at the individual Native American tribe member or Colonial American community member? Since the actions of each member contribute to the wellbeing of the whole group, and consequently of nature, it is important to grasp how self-conduct that is necessarily a product of the individual self, fits into the bigger picture and affects the attitudes and actions of the individual toward other people and the environment. This coincides with the purpose of this project to show how the concept of self for Native Americans can be illuminating in many ways, consequently casting light on how we might learn from their ways, rather than give the impression to readers that one concept of self is any better or worse than the other. It is my aim to illustrate the unique and intriguing way that Native Americans view the self as part of nature, and investigate how these differing concepts of self, in relation to nature, affect how the these groups act toward nature. My hope is that readers will be encouraged to reflect on their own values and the roles that those values play in modern America, including some of the implications that these concepts of self have had in the past and continue to have for the future.

in English The diploma thesis addresses the precautionary principle and its role in environmental protection. In the introduction the author deals with the origins of application of this principle, its definition and its primary characteristics. Precautionary principle is distinguished from prevention principle and differences between terms principle and approach are assessed. Subsequently the thesis describes the current state of incorporation of precautionary principle in the individual areas of environmental protection and specifies the typology of various incorporation methods. Furthermore, significant case law regarding the subject principle is introduced and the current importance of the principle is evaluated. Substantial arguments of precautionary principle critics are also included. In the final part of the thesis, the author outlines de lege ferenda ideas concerning the precautionary principle, including efficient methods of incorporation of the principle, solutions to flaws of current regulations and draft of template provisions of precautionary principle application.

The purpose of this paper is to analyse legal regulation of genetically modified organisms ("GMO"). This work consists of seven chapters and focuses especially on differences in regulations of the United States of America ("USA") and European Union ("EU"). While the USA consider GMO equal to other products and have no GMO specific legal norms, the EU regulates GMOs with directives and regulations which set GMO apart from other products. Conclusions are being drawn in last chapter. It is suggested, that the protective and economic approach to the GMOs should be ballanced out on the international law scene, so that the development of biotechnology is not slowed down too much, while safety to human health and environment is guaranteed.

Introdução - Desde a década de 70 a sociedade contemporânea depara-se com riscos e incertezas que apresentam características únicas. Casos emblemáticos nos campos da saúde, segurança e meio ambiente são discutidos pela mídia, organizações não-governamentais, governos, empresas e sociedade civil, e sobre eles o direito é chamado a se posicionar. Para lidar com esses temas, ao longo das duas últimas décadas o direito (internacional e do ambiente) construiu o princípio da precaução. Objetivo - A pesquisa tem por objeto discernir o que o princípio da precaução tem sido, do que ele não é, e o que ele pode vir a ser, contribuindo assim para o estudo das dimensões jurídicas da Sociedade do Risco e das relações entre o direito e a incerteza. Fonte bibliográfica - O estudo se baseou, sobretudo, na literatura francesa sobre o princípio da precaução, na jurisprudência internacional e nas recentes iniciativas da União Européia e da Organização Mundial da Saúde. Considerou-se também a doutrina, jurisprudência e legislação brasileira. Aspectos abordados - Abordou-se a configuração da Sociedade do Risco e como o direito do ambiente se relaciona com suas dimensões científicas e tecnológicas. Em seguida, foi estudada a consolidação desse princípio, em sua dimensão ética e jurídica. Por lidar com temas atuais e polêmicos, sua aplicação é ainda controversa, mas as dificuldades e críticas a ele formuladas auxiliam a evidenciar suas potencialidades. Conclusão - no Brasil é ainda precária a compreensão do que o princípio da precaução é, ou mesmo do que ele não é. Os tribunais confundem precaução e prevenção; o princípio da precaução é usado como sinônimo de uma obrigação geral de preservar o meio ambiente ou como justificativa para abstenções. Uma incorporação mais eficaz desse princípio requer o conhecimento da sua teoria e prática. A aplicação do princípio da precaução deve ser pautada na realização de análises de riscos, na adoção de parâmetros aptos a balizar sua prática e na utilização de stantards jurídicos. A controvérsia promovida pelo princípio da precaução estimula uma atitude reflexiva com relação à ciência e fortalece, no direito e fora dele, a tomada de decisões envolvendo a opinião pública e a comunidade científica. / Introduction - Since the 1970s, the society at large has been faced with unprecedented risks and uncertainties. Landmark cases in the health, safety and environmental areas have been extensively debated by the media, nongovernmental organizations, governments, corporations and the civil society as a whole, and the law has been called upon to take a stance over these issues. To cope with these issues, international and environment law has devised, over the last two decades, the so-called precautionary principle. Scope - This research seeks to draw a distinction between what the precautionary principle has been from what it is not, and what it may come to be, thus contributing to studies on the legal realms of the Risk Society and the relations between the law and uncertainties. Bibliography - This study has primarily relied on French literature covering the precautionary principle, international case law, and the recent initiatives of both the European Union and the World Health Organization. Brazilian case law, legal writings and laws have also been taken into consideration. Aspects - This work addresses the framework of Risk Society and how environmental law relates to its scientific aspects. Then, the consolidation of such principle on its ethical and legal fronts was studied. As current (and rather debatable) themes are into play, the application of Risk Society is still controversial, but the difficulties faced by such application and the criticism directed at it help understand the potential characteristics of this framework. Conclusion - In Brazil, understanding what the precautionary principle stands for (or even what it does not) is still incipient. Brazilian courts make a confusion between precaution and prevention: the precautionary principle is taken as a synonym for a general duty to conserve the environment or as a reason for limitations. A deeper understanding of this precautionary principle calls for a greater awareness of its theory and practice. Applying the precautionary principle should thus be grounded on risk analyses; on the adoption of standards that are capable of governing its practice; and on effective use of legal standards. The controversy over the precautionary principle has invited to a more reflective approach to science, while also strengthening (within the realms of law, and beyond) decision-making efforts involving the public opinion and the scientific community.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-27T18:15:45Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Edson Cinaqui Filho.pdf: 2131297 bytes, checksum: aef7f7cc013ddbf281ee30bc79baa5a2 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-03-10 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Transgenic organisms have inserted into its genome one or more DNA sequences of a species of interest, to ensure the inserted genic expression. Of these genes. These sequences (genes) may come from any living organismo (bactéria, fungus, plants, animals, protozoan) or nonliving (vírus). The permission for planting and commercialization of these organisms which are modified to resist various environmental pressusres raised the debate about its biosafety to the environment and to human and animal health. In this research were analyzed and discussed the decision-making processes involved in the approval of three varieties of transgenic corn in Brazil: the Liberty Link herbicide tolerant, insect resistant MON810 and Bt11 also resistant to insects. The choice of analyzing corn soybeans, is due the fact that Brazil is one of the centers of diversity of this plant and also for its importance to indigenous tribes and traditional communities. The studies submitted by the companies planning release the transgenic seeds were inadequate perfomed at short notice and grounded in statistical methods poorly documented. The samples were not representative and the number of repetitions insuficiente. Studies on the possible effects of there transgenic varieties on populations of non-target organisms were performed improperly, disregarding its ecological importante. The releases of these three varieties of transgenic com in Brazil contradicted Article 225 of the Federal Constitution which states that everyone has the right to a balanced environment which is essential to a healthy quality of life, and the Government should protect and preserve it for presente and future generations.The permission for planting and sala of transgenics occurred throught a comission in which the majority of members were interested in a transgenic research funded by multinationals. In addition to the political nature of problems, the release of transgenic corn wounded three basic environmental principles: precaution, sustainability and responsibility, for damage. Currently several studies attest problems in human and animal health and in the environment arising from transgenic organisms. Thus, the adoption of the Precautionary Principle should be essential before the release of transgenic corn in Brazil, to ensure that with so many scientific uncertainties the environment small farmers and the health human beings and other animals would be sabe. , to ensure that with so many scientific uncertainties, the environment, small farmers and the health of human beings and other animals would be safe / Organismos transgênicos possuem inseridos em seu genoma uma ou mais sequências de DNA de uma espécie de interesse, de modo a garantir a expressão gênica destes genes inseridos. Essas sequências (genes) podem provir de qualquer organismo vivo (bactérias, fungos, plantas, animais, protozoários) ou não vivo (vírus). A liberação para plantio e comercialização destes organismos modificados e resistentes a diversas pressões ambientais levantaram o debate sobre a biossegurança destes ao meio ambiente, saúde humana e animal. Neste trabalho foram analisados e discutidos os processos decisórios envolvidos na aprovação de três variedades de milhos transgênicos no Brasil: o Liberty Link tolerante a herbicida, o MON810 resistente a insetos e o Bt11 também resistente a insetos. A escolha de analisar o milho e não a soja, se deve ao fato do Brasil ser um dos centros de diversidade dessa planta, e também por sua importância para os povos indígenas e para as comunidades tradicionais. Os estudos apresentados pelas empresas que pleiteavam liberar suas sementes transgênicas foram inadequados, realizados à curto prazo e embasados em métodos estatísticos mal documentados. As amostragens não foram representativas e os números de repetições insuficientes. Estudos sobre os possíveis efeitos destas variedades transgênicas em populações de organismos não-alvo foram realizados de forma inadequada, desprezando a importância ecológica destes. As liberações destas três variedades de milho transgênico no Brasil contrariaram o Artigo 225 da Constituição Federal que afirma que todos têm direito ao meio ambiente em equilíbrio e essencial à sadia qualidade de vida, e que caberia ao Poder Público defende-lo e preservá-lo para as gerações presentes e futuras. As liberações para plantio e comercialização de transgênicos ocorreram por meio de uma comissão cuja maioria dos membros estavam interessados em pesquisas de transgenia com financiamento de multinacionais. Além dos problemas de cunho político, a liberação do milho transgênico feriu três princípios ambientais básicos: da precaução, da sustentabilidade e da responsabilidade por danos. Atualmente diversos estudos atestam problemas na saúde humana, animal e ao meio ambiente decorrentes de organismos transgênicos. Desta forma, a adoção do Princípio da Precaução se fazia fundamental antes da liberação do milho transgênico no Brasil, para garantir que diante de tantas incertezas científicas o meio ambiente, o pequeno agricultor e a saúde do ser humano e demais animais estariam seguros

La tesi analizza il quadro normativo relativo alla partecipazione del pubblico nei procedimenti amministrativi applicativi del principio di precauzione. Il lavoro si sviluppa in tre Capitoli: il primo inquadra il tema della partecipazione in materia ambientale nel quadro più generale dei modelli di partecipazione all’attività amministrativa generale presenti in altri settori, come quello dell’urbanistica e della regolazione condizionale dell’attività economica. In questo si precisa, inoltre, la ratio e il contenuto del principio di precauzione e si illustrano i relativi nessi con quello di partecipazione. Il secondo Capitolo affronta l’analisi della disciplina europea ed internazionale in materia di partecipazione ambientale laddove la qualità delle forme partecipative è molto più sofisticata e incisiva rispetto alla disciplina domestica; in esso è analizzato anche il procedimento di autorizzazione per l’immissione in commercio di cibi contenenti OGM. Il terzo ed ultimo Capitolo analizza le procedure di valutazione di impatto ambientale e il ruolo significativo rivestito, in esse, dai modelli di partecipazione. Nella fase conclusiva si mettono in luce gli aspetti critici, sotto il profilo procedurale, dei modelli di partecipazione analizzati e si offrono alcuni suggerimenti diretti al loro superamento. / The thesis analyzes the legal framework provided for the public participation in administrative proceedings connected to environmental matters, especially when the precautionary principle is applied. The work consists of three chapters: the first situates participation in in the Italian general framework for public participation, especially regarding planning and regulatory proceedings. The meaning of precautionary principle and its connections with the public participation are also analyzed. The second chapter analyses the main features of participation in the international and European legal systems and their influence on the national regulations. This chapter deals in particular with the regulation provided by the EU law for the authorization of GM food. The last chapter discuss the role of public participation in the environmental impact assessments. Finally, the thesis highlights the weak points of environmental participation and propose some measures to improve its legal regulation.

The Precautionary Principle (PP) as formulated in the context of climate change requires countries to take measures to anticipate, prevent or minimize the causes of climate change and mitigate its adverse impacts despite a lack of full scientific certainty as to such causes. The Differentiated Responsibility Principle (the DR Principle) recognizes a common responsibility of all countries to prevent climate change and calls on developed states to assume a leadership role in the global effort to prevent climate change. The DR Principle requires some developed countries to place a restriction on their GHG emissions. Unfortunately this means that at least in the short term, developing countries are not subject to greenhouse gas (GHG) emission targets, thereby exacerbating the climate change problem. <p>Implementing the DR Principle in this manner conflicts with the PP. To avoid this conflict, the DR Principle should be formulated in a manner which demands some restriction on GHG emission, by developing countries. Efforts to prevent human induced climate change should be made by all countries regardless of their individual culpability for climate change if the PP is to have effect.

The Precautionary Principle (PP) as formulated in the context of climate change requires countries to take measures to anticipate, prevent or minimize the causes of climate change and mitigate its adverse impacts despite a lack of full scientific certainty as to such causes. The Differentiated Responsibility Principle (the DR Principle) recognizes a common responsibility of all countries to prevent climate change and calls on developed states to assume a leadership role in the global effort to prevent climate change. The DR Principle requires some developed countries to place a restriction on their GHG emissions. Unfortunately this means that at least in the short term, developing countries are not subject to greenhouse gas (GHG) emission targets, thereby exacerbating the climate change problem. <p>Implementing the DR Principle in this manner conflicts with the PP. To avoid this conflict, the DR Principle should be formulated in a manner which demands some restriction on GHG emission, by developing countries. Efforts to prevent human induced climate change should be made by all countries regardless of their individual culpability for climate change if the PP is to have effect.

This paper attempts to present and analyze problems that may arise from the use of Genetically Modified (GM) products and issues raised by the Intellectual Property (IP) rights that Genetic Engineering (GE) companies have on their products. Arguments in favor and against the existence of health risks and environmental risks of GM products are presented. The European policy of the socioeconomic effects of the GM products is discussed and is proposed the application of the precautionary principle for the prevention of unintended consequences from the GM products to other than health and environmental domains. The need of IP rights is supported, but is also suggested an IP rights flexibility. Do IP rights violate the rights of all people to a nourishing life, natural resources, the right to decide about what they eat and the right to live in a viable ecosystem? Finally, I provide an analysis of the effects on the farmers due to the IP rights on GM crop for cultivation and state dependency issues that may occur.