Since neonates are often the age-class most susceptible to predation, there should be strong selective pressure on prey for the early development of successful antipredator behaviour. The ability to assess predation risk as early as the embryonic stages may increase an individual’s survival, as it would allow young individuals to be better adapted to current predation risk, since present conditions are often a good short-term indicator of future conditions. I exposed embryonic cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis) to the odour of a predator and tested both the responses of the embryos to this stimulus, and the latent effects of both long (approximately 3 weeks)- and short (a few days)- exposure on the behaviour of newly-hatched juveniles, in particular the efficiency of cryptic behaviour on uniform and sandy substrates. Exposure to novel odours, whether they were predators or non-predators, increased the ventilation rate of embryos. This may be adaptive, because it helps an individual survive first encounters with unknown potential dangers before they have opportunity to collect information about a novel stimulus. Long-term exposure to predator odour increased the camouflage efficiencies of juveniles on uniform substrates. On sandy substrate, the exposure did not affect camouflage, but increased the extent of sand digging behaviour. Juveniles were also larger in size at hatching when exposed to predators compared to those that were not. These results were not seen in individuals with only short-term exposure to predator. Short-term exposure also had no effect on camouflage efficiencies on uniform or sandy substrates, or on sand digging behaviour. The results of my thesis indicate that high predation risk during embryonic development induces behavioural and morphological changes in camouflage expression and body size in cuttlefish hatchlings. The behavioural plasticity may provide survival benefits for newly hatched individuals, but may come at a cost in terms of body size. Such behavioural and morphological plasticity may have an impact on predator-prey dynamics and organization of communities.

A ubiquitous problem for all foragers is the trade-off between acquiring food energy while simultaneously avoiding the risk of predation. In central montane Alberta I modelled how ungulate forage changes with succession within cutblocks and the implications for forage availability to ungulates under current harvest regimes. Because cutblocks are discrete patches in space, I developed a dynamic state variable model for an ungulate to explore under what conditions an individual forager could (1) behaviourally avoid predation within a patch through inactivity, (2) overcome patch isolation when confronted with predation during transit between patches, and (3) alter patch use across a home range to optimize fitness. The model includes the requirement to process forage into energy through rumination behaviour that constrains foraging, and compares outcomes under a time-minimizing (sigmoid) and energy maximizing (linear) fitness functions. When an ungulate is in high energetic state, inactivity provides an effective behavioural refuge, or animals prioritize safety over energy gain, individuals avoid predation within patches reducing the need to move between patches. When energy acquisition is prioritized, individuals are at a low energetic state, or within patch anti-predator behaviours are ineffective, individuals move among patches to avoid predators in space, and configuration of the patches influences fitness. When model results were qualitatively compared to activity patterns and cutblock use of female, GPS-collared elk appear to follow a time minimizing strategy in their patch use across the home range and with their activity within riskier patches. I discuss the implications of these findings for the management of elk and cutblocks in west central Alberta.

Heterogeneous environments play an important role in the evolution of traits when selection is diversifying between different conditions. One response is the capacity of individuals to beneficially adjust their phenotype to local conditions, such as different predators. In larval Enallagma damselflies, diversifying selection from predatory dragonfly larvae or predatory fish favours opposing traits, respectively high or low levels of activity, and so appears to drive the adaptive divergence of anti-predator specialists. However, little work has addressed: i) if anti-predator generalist species exist; ii) if anti-predator generalist species express adaptive flexible behaviour; iii) if adaptive flexible behaviour is influenced by prior experience with predators. I compared individual larval behaviour in the presence of fish, dragonfly larvae, or no predators, in four Enallagma species groups from ponds with and without fish predators. Ecological distributions suggest variation in degree of anti-predator generalization, and this was associated with increased responsiveness to predator treatment in the most likely ecological generalist. Responses to predators varied across different behaviours and sometimes were shaped by prior predation experience. Thus, a variety of adaptive strategies may have evolved to cope with heterogeneity in predation risk in larval damselflies. / NSERC, OGS

No description available.

Hatchery supplementation of declining fish populations is used for increasing year-class strength, particularly when fish are released with knowledge of local predators. The ability of young-of-the-year lake sturgeon (Acipenser fulvescens) to avoid predation, as well as their vulnerability to predation, remains undocumented. The objective of my thesis was to determine: 1) whether hatchery-reared, predator-naive juvenile sturgeon would respond to alarm cues from injured conspecific cues, a reliable indicator of predation risk in other fishes; and 2) if sturgeon would learn to identify unknown predators through a Pavlovian-like conditioning with conspecific alarm cues. Releaser-induced recognition learning is a variant of Pavlovian learning in which recognition of a previously neutral stimulus is acquired through the experience of pairing a behaviourally active releasing stimulus and a novel stimulus. Sturgeon were initially conditioned using a behaviourally active stimulus of sturgeon alarm cue, paired with a behaviourally neutral stimulus of novel northern pike (Esox lucius) odour, or were pseudo-conditioned with distilled water paired with pike odour. Following conditioning, sturgeon were tested for recognition of the predator odour 24 hours later. The first population of fish (Rainy River) showed a dramatic antipredator response to alarm cues from the skin of conspecifics, but failed to exhibit learning of a novel predator through conditioning with alarm cues obtained from the skin of conspecifics. However, when Rainy River fish were conditioned with alarm cues from the whole body of conspecifics, they showed strong learning of the predator. Conditioning Wolf River fish to recognize predators with whole body extract had no effect on response to predator odours. However, when the fish were conditioned multiple times there was evidence of predator learning. These results highlight potential opportunities and limitation to life-skill training of artificially reared sturgeon for future conservation initiatives.

Prédateurs et proies sont entraînés dans une course spatiale où les prédateurs cherchent à sélectionner les zones du paysage avec une forte disponibilité en proies alors que les proies tentent d’éviter les zones du paysage avec une forte probabilité de rencontrer un prédateur. Ils procèdent incessamment à de nombreux choix susceptibles de modifier l’issue de cette course. Ainsi, en sélectionnant des endroits différents, ils peuvent tenter d'altérer les probabilités de détection, de rencontre ou encore la probabilité de réussite d’une attaque. De nombreuses études empiriques montrent l’importance de l’habitat dans ces choix. On connaît par contre peu les mécanismes de recherche (par les prédateurs) ou d’évitement (par les proies) qui ne seraient pas relatifs à l’habitat. La course spatiale ne résume cependant pas entièrement l’interaction entre prédateurs et proies, laquelle dépend de nombreux comportements non-spatiaux. La vigilance et la socialité des proies constituent des défenses relativement répandues. On a aussi fréquemment observé de nombreux exemples où les proies deviennent actives à un autre moment de la journée pour échapper à leur prédateur. Cependant, on connaît relativement peu les interactions de ces comportements avec la dimension spatiale du jeu proie-prédateur. Dans cette thèse, j'ai pour objectif de combler ces différents manques. Dans le premier chapitre, je propose un modèle théorique montrant l’importance de la prise en compte des comportements spatiaux dans l’interaction classique entre vigilance et taille de groupe chez les proies. Dans le second chapitre, je présente un mécanisme d’évitement des prédateurs par les proies, s'appuyant sur les ancres spatiales et temporelles des prédateurs et ne dépendant pas de l’habitat. Enfin, dans le dernier chapitre, je développe un modèle de choix de parcelles permettant de prévoir comment les connaissances passées sont susceptibles d'être utilisées pour orienter les déplacements. Ce modèle rappelle notamment l’importance de l’imprévisibilité du déplacement dans le jeu prédateur-proie. Ces différents travaux se placent dans le cadre d’une écologie comportementale du paysage et visent à intégrer des mécanismes comportementaux dans l’étude des dynamiques écologiques à l’échelle du paysage. / Predators and prey engage into a space race where predators seek to select areas with high prey availability while prey try to avoid areas with a high probability of encountering a predator. Predators and prey continuously make choices that can alter the outcome of this space race. For example, by using different locations in the landscape, they can alter the probability of an encounter, the probabilities of detection or the probability of success of an attack. Many empirical studies show the importance of habitat in these choices. On the other hand, little is known about avoidance by prey or predator search strategies that would be unrelated to habitat. The space race, however, does not fully summarize the interaction between predators and prey, which also depends on many non-spatial behaviors. The vigilance and grouping behaviour of prey are relatively common defenses, and there are many examples where prey become active at another time of day to escape their predator. However, it is still unclear how those behaviors interact with the spatial dimension of the prey-predator game. In this thesis, I will try to fill these gaps. In the first chapter, I propose a theoretical model showing the importance of accounting for spatial behaviors when studying the classical interaction between vigilance and group size in prey. In the second chapter, I present a mechanism of predator avoidance by prey, relying on the spatial and temporal anchors of predators and independent on the habitat. Finally, in the last chapter, I develop a patch selection model to predict how past information should be used to determine movement. This model emphasize the importance of movement unpredictability in the predator-prey game. These different works are part of a behavioral ecology of the landscape and aim to integrate behavioral mechanisms in the study of ecological dynamics at the landscape scale.

In an effort to better understand primate behavioural flexibility and responses to low-biomass habitats, behavioural patterns of ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta) living in a xerophytic spiny forest habitat in southern Madagascar were examined. Behavioural data were collected over two months on two separate groups living in two distinctly different habitats: a sub-desert spiny forest and a riverine gallery forest. Data on the following behavioural categories integral to primate sociality were collected: time allocation, anti-predator vigilance, predator sensitive foraging, feeding competition, and affiliative behaviour. L. catta living in the spiny forest habitat differed significantly in many behavioural patterns when compared to L. catta living in the gallery forest. I suggest that the ability to successfully alter behavioural strategies to varying ecological conditions allows ring-tailed lemurs to occupy low biomass habitats which are uninhabitable to nearly all other primate species in Madagascar. Lemur catta evolution, behavioural flexibility, and conservation will be discussed.

In an effort to better understand primate behavioural flexibility and responses to low-biomass habitats, behavioural patterns of ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta) living in a xerophytic spiny forest habitat in southern Madagascar were examined. Behavioural data were collected over two months on two separate groups living in two distinctly different habitats: a sub-desert spiny forest and a riverine gallery forest. Data on the following behavioural categories integral to primate sociality were collected: time allocation, anti-predator vigilance, predator sensitive foraging, feeding competition, and affiliative behaviour. L. catta living in the spiny forest habitat differed significantly in many behavioural patterns when compared to L. catta living in the gallery forest. I suggest that the ability to successfully alter behavioural strategies to varying ecological conditions allows ring-tailed lemurs to occupy low biomass habitats which are uninhabitable to nearly all other primate species in Madagascar. Lemur catta evolution, behavioural flexibility, and conservation will be discussed.

This study investigates two questions about anti-predator behaviour of the red-backed shrike. 1) Is the red-backed shrike able to assess the differing dangers represented by various types or species of predators? 2) How does the red-backed shrike recognize the predator? We found, that the red-backed shrike (Lanius collurio) adjusts its anti-predator behaviour by assessing the potential threat to themselves from different predator species and by assessing the chance of a successful attack. Further, we found that the presence of general raptor salient features is absolutely necessary for proper categorisation of the intruder as a predator, whereas the natural species-specific colouration in itself is an insufficient cue.

La zone côtière Atlantique constitue une importante nourricerie pour les juvéniles de sole commune (Solea solea, Linnaeus 1758). Pour évaluer les conséquences sur la biologie des juvéniles de cette espèce exploitant un milieu côtier de plus en plus anthropisé, les effets de l’hypoxie et/ou des Polychlorobiphényles (PCBs) ont été évalués sur leurs performances physiologiques (métabolisme aérobie et performances cardiaques) ainsi que sur leur comportement vis-à-vis des prédateurs. Pour cela, une étude a été réalisée à deux échelles d’organisation biologique, l’organe et l’individu. Des contaminations aux PCBs (670 ng and 2239 ng PCB g-1 de nourriture ont été effectuées expérimentalement par voie trophique pendant 30 et 60 jours. De telles expositions ont engendré des effets peu marqués sur le métabolisme aérobie, se traduisant par une faible augmentation du métabolisme de maintenance associé à une augmentation de la concentration critique en oxygène (O2crit) chez les soles exposées sur le long terme à la plus haute concentration de PCB. De la même façon, la performance cardiaque n’est apparue que très peu affectée par la contamination aux PCBs. Nous avons tout de même noté une diminution de la force de contraction du cœur des soles contaminées lorsqu’il est fortement sollicité comme c’est le cas au cours d’une activité physique soutenue. Par ailleurs, le mécanisme de contraction du cœur se trouve modifié chez les soles contaminées avec une participation plus importante du calcium issu du réticulum sarcoplasmique que chez les soles témoins. Les résultats concernant le comportement anti-prédateur ont montré que l’hypoxie engendrait une réduction du taux de réponse de fuite de la sole, ainsi qu’une limitation de leur capacité cryptique via une augmentation oxy-dépendent de la fréquence de ventilation. D’une façon générale, même si les PCBs semblent avoir peu d’effets sur les performances physiologiques testées, il ne peut être exclu qu’ils puissent compromettre à plus long terme le développement et la survie des juvéniles de soles, qu’ils soient associés ou non à des conditions environnementales limitantes comme l’hypoxie. / The Atlantic coastal zone constitutes an important nursery for the juveniles of the common sole (Solea solea, Linnaeus on 1758). To assess the effect of anthropisation on the survival of the juveniles of common sole, the effects of the hypoxia and\or Polychlorinated Biphenyles (PCBs) on their physiological performances (aerobic metabolism and cardiac performances) were assessed as well as their antipredator behaviour. For that purpose, the study was carried out at two levels of biological organization, the organ and the individual. Sole contamination with PCB (670 ng and 2239 ng PCB g-1 of food), was made experimentally via the trophic pathway, during 30 and 60 days. Our results suggest that PCBs slightly affected the aerobic metabolism. An increase of the standard metabolic rate participate to raise the level of critical oxygen concentration (CritO2) in soles exposed to long term to the highest concentration of PCB was noted. In the same way, the cardiac performances seem to be slightly affected by PCB-contamination. A decrease in the peak tension was noted in PCB-contaminated soles forced to an intense activity. In addition it was noted an increase in the participation of the sarcoplasmic reticulum to the force of contraction in the hearts of soles contaminated compared with hearts of control soles. The results obtained with regard to the simulation of the attack of a predator showed that responsiveness was lower in hypoxia compared with normoxia associated with a decrease of their cryptic capacity. In general, even if the PCB seems to have slight effects on the tested physiological performances, it cannot be excluded that long term exposure to PCBs can compromise the development and the survival of the juveniles of common sole, independently of their association with limiting environmental conditions such as hypoxia.