Nuclear energy generation results in the production of effluents and radioactive waste that are very difficult to treat and dispose. A considerable fraction of nuclear waste is discharged in the form of complex mixtures of hazardous organic compounds and metallic radionuclides. The most serious pollution is caused by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and polychlorinated biphenyls that are very difficult to remove from the environment. The nuclear industry faces certain challenges related to treatment and safe disposal of these mixed radioactive organic wastes due to the toxicity and recalcitrant nature of the organics. Techniques currently used in treating the waste include physical-chemical processes that have resulted in the generation of the secondary waste requiring further treatment before disposal to the environment. These conventional processes also require the use of strong oxidising agents and higher than natural pH and temperature. Therefore, it is of great importance to develop new environmentally friendly technologies. One suggested method employs specialised cultures of bacteria to completely mineralize the organic compounds without leaving traces of harmful byproducts. The efficiency of bacteria to remove these types of compounds may be improved by in situ application. During in situ application, the bacteria apply a variety of pathways to break down the compounds and use them as their energy and carbon sources. These processes may be carried out within the natural pH and temperature range capable of supporting life forms. In the current study, a more detailed analysis of the biodegradation capability of the organic compounds was conducted and the following were the major findings of the study: <ul><li> Wastewater from an actual radionuclide processing facility was characterised and was found to contain all the 16 priority PAHs in the range 0.001-25 mg/L. Acenaphthene (detected at 25.1 mg/L) was the most abundant. Most of the PAHs in the wastewater samples exceeded the WHO limit of 0.05ìg/L indicating the need for further treatment before final disposal to the environment.</li> <li> After purifying and sequencing the rRNA genes from the soil and mine water bacteria, a total of 5 and 3 bacterial isolates were found, respectively. The rRNA sequences were isolated from bacteria with some tolerance to PAH toxicity and were thus candidate species for naphthalene degradation. The bacteria from soil were predominated by aromatic compound degraders Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Microbacterium esteraromaticum and Alcaligenes sp. In mine water, only Pseudomonas putida was identified as a known aromatic ring cleaving species.</li> <li> The biodegradation of naphthalene by the purified cultures was determined to be limited by its solubility (30mg/L) and toxic effects of the aromatic compounds. A kinetic model was derived based on the metabolism and microbial growth kinetics. The model predicted the concentration remaining in solution under different initial (added) PAH concentrations. A simplified coupled dissolution-degradation model was used to model the kinetics of degradation. With help of the model, parameters were estimated and the sensitivity of parameter value was also evaluated. The aim of model was to help gain a better understanding of biological degradation. This could be used for optimisation of the process and scale up of the process to pilot and full-scale application.</li></ul> / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2010. / Microbiology and Plant Pathology / unrestricted

The production of both fresh water and waste streams are progressively increasing over the years due to ongoing population growth coupled with high levels of increase in water consumption. The ongoing growth of human activities, such as industry, recreation, and agriculture, are significantly contributing to the increase in both water demand and severity of degradation of natural water resources. The majority of the industrial wastewaters have a significant impact on the environment; some of which may pose a number of threats to human health and the surrounding environment. Thus, discharge of such waste streams into a surface water and/or groundwater presents a major source of water pollution in many countries. Therefore, these waste streams must be disposed of in an environmentally acceptable manner. The primary concern of the PhD thesis is to seek the most feasible and applicable freezing desalination technologies that are potentially capable to concentrate the dissolved ionic content of the liquid streams, especially for those causing severe pollution problems. Therefore, various forms of melt crystallisation processes, namely; agitated and static crystallisation processes, ice maker machines, a Sulzer falling film crystallisation process, the Sulzer suspension crystallisation process, and the Sulzer static crystallisation process, were experimentally used and investigated. The experimental investigations were carried out on the laboratory bench scale and/or straightforward pilot plant by using aqueous solutions of sodium chloride and/or process brines as feed samples. The study was focused on a number of important parameters influencing the separation performance of the investigated treatment systems. In general, the resulting experimental data for each innovative process were highly encouraging in minimising the volume of the waste stream, and substantially increasing the amount of product water. The obtained product water was ready for immediate use either as drinking water or as a saline water of near brackish water or seawater qualities. Also, relationships between the influences and the separation performance, in terms of salt rejection and water recovery ratios, were explored and determined for the investigated technologies. Based on the experimental results, the Sulzer melt crystallisation processes were scaled up and were combined into a commercial reverse osmosis membrane desalination plant. As a result, three novel treatment option configurations were proposed for minimising the waste stream, whilst increasing the production rate of drinking water and/or preserving a substantial amount of natural water resource from the RO plant's exploitation.

Dissolved and Colloidal substances (DisCo) and metals are released from wood during thermomechanical pulp (TMP) production. The mechanical treatment causes that these components have a tendency to accumulate in process waters, as the water circulation systems in integrated paper mills are being closed. Disturbances such as pitch depositions on the paper machine (pitch problems), specks in the paper, decreased wet and dry strength, interference with cationic process chemicals, and impaired sheet brightness and friction properties appear in the presence of DisCo substances. The presence of transition metal ions such as manganese results in higher consumption of bleaching chemicals (hydrogen peroxide) and lowers the optical quality of the final product, and addition of complexing agents, such as EDTA or DTPA, to prevent this is needed. The never ending trends to decrease water consumption and increase process efficiency in pulp and paper production stress that it is very important both to know the effects of wood substances on pulping and papermaking and to be able to remove them in an efficient way. Carried out investigations presented in this thesis show that the lipophilic extractives can be removed from TMP press water to high extent. A 90% decrease in turbidity and a 91% removal of lipophilic extractives from TMP press water can be obtained by addition of a cationic surfactant as foaming agent during flotation. Additionally, fibres located in TMP press water are not removed with the foam fraction but purified. A retained concentration of hydrophilic extractives in the process water indicates that the flotation is selective. Moreover, by introduction of a new recoverable surface active complexing agent, a chelating surfactant, manganese ions in the form of chelates can be successfully removed from the pulp fibres and separated from the process water in the same flotation process. iii The findings presented above indicate new possibilities for internal water cleaning and decreased emissions to water if flotation technology is applied in an integrated mechanical pulp mill. / ReGain/FORE

Sulphate-rich wastewater is an increasing concern for industries as LKAB. The water chemistry of the LKAB Kiruna water system is characterized by high alkalinity, high pH (pH 7.5-9.0) and high concentrations of chemical species and soluble minerals. The sulphate content in the water system of Kiruna is associated with the dissolution of calcium sulphate as anhydrite (CaSO4) and gypsum (CaSO4 2H2O). However, the high concentrations of sulphate in the effluents from the LKAB Kiruna operation are unique for iron ore mining.    The aim of the thesis was to study and evaluate the behavior of sulphate in the process water system of the Kiruna concentrator plants. This was done by laboratory grinding (leaching tests), equilibrium calculations with the HSC software and mass balancing of the concentrator KA3 in Kiruna. The highest concentrations of sulphate have been detected in the process water of KA3, hence the focus has been on KA3 regarding sampling, evaluation and comparison. Water treatment technologies for sulphate and the effect of process water on ore processing have not been included in this project.   The laboratory grinding was done using process water and ore from the concentrator KA3. During the experimental work with laboratory grinding the parameters pH, temperature and operating times for primary- and secondary grinding, respectively, were varied. The observations from the experimental work were further confirmed by equilibrium calculations and mass balancing. The following conclusions were drawn.     Anhydrite/gypsum is not leached from the ore during ore processing with process water having concentrations of sulphate already close to the saturation point at approximately 1800 mg/L. If the process water is diluted with water with lower sulphate content, e.g. mine water or a diluted return water from the pond system (e.g. during spring flood), anhydrite/gypsum in ore will be dissolved until the sulphate concentration reaches the saturation point. The ionic strength of the process water controls the saturation point and thus the sulphate concentration. Leaching of anhydrite/gypsum in saturated process water, with respect to sulphate, is not affected by grinding time or adjusted conditions in the process water, such as temperature or pH value.    For further work, it is recommended to investigate the behavior of sulphate in the tailings pond system to increase knowledge of the overall behavior in the water system. In addition, a similar investigation of the behavior of uranium in the process water is recommended in order to face future environmental standards.

Syftet med detta examensarbete är att studera vilka vattenföroreningar som uppstår i samband med tunnelbyggen, vilka krav som miljömyndigheterna ställer i sammanhanget och vilka reningsåtgärder som har vidtagits för att möta dessa krav samt att föreslå ytterligare reningsåtgärder. Arbetet har utförts som en jämförande litteraturstudie av befintlig dokumentation för tolv olika tunnelbyggen. Vid ett tunnelbygge används stora mängder kylvatten till bergborrningsmaskiner. Detta vatten avleds tillsammans med inläckande grundvatten och släpps efter rening ut till en recipient. Föroreningarna i vattnet från tunneln består i huvudsak av olja, suspenderade partiklar och lösta kväveföreningar. I dagsläget används mekanisk rening för att reducera mängden olja och suspenderade partiklar i vattnet. Kväveutsläppet minskas framförallt genom förebyggande åtgärder för att undvika kvävehaltigt sprängämnesspill. Dagens reningsmetoder ger en betydande minskning av utsläppen. Utsläpp av förorenat vatten från ett tunnelbygge kan ge upphov till temporär miljöpåverkan i recipienten. Miljömyndigheternas krav på begränsningar av utsläpp från tunnelbyggen har i de flesta fall kunnat efterföljas väl. Medianhalten för suspenderat partikulärt material i renat vatten från olika tunnelbyggen varierade mellan 210 mg/l och 485 mg/l. Uppmätta medianvärden för oljehalt varierade mellan 0.28 mg/l och 1.3 mg/l. Medianhalten för olika kväveföreningar i varierade mellan 3.2 mg/l och 100 mg/l. Detta betyder att mellan 0.3 % och 9 % av det kväve som ursprungligen fanns i sprängämnet har hamnat i processvattnet. Enstaka mätvärden för totalkväve, olja och suspenderat material kan visa på upp till 100 ggr högre halt än medianvärdet. l examensarbetet jämförs mängden utsläppta föroreningar till vatten från de olika tunnelbyggena med utsläpp till vatten från vägar, båtar och jordbruk. Ett tunnelbygge leder till utsläpp av samma storlek som det årliga utsläppet från en enstaka bondgård, en motorbåt eller dagvattnet från en kortare motorvägsträcka, med avseende på kväveläckage, oljeutsläpp respektive innehåll av suspenderade partiklar. l examensarbetet beskrivs existerande reningsåtgärder och ges förslag på ytterligare åtgärder som kan vidtas för att minska utsläppen av vattenföroreningar från tunnelbyggen. De föreslagna åtgärderna behandlar optimering av reningsanläggningar, förbättrade kontrollprogram och utsläppsförebyggande insatser. En diskussion förs om möjligheten att förbättra miljöövervakningen vid utsläpp av tunnelvatten genom att ersätta dagens stickprovtagningar med automatiserad kontinuerlig flödesproportionell mätning. / The aim of this thesis is to study which types of water pollution are released during tunnel construction, what demands do the environmental protection authorities have regarding such pollution, what has been done to meet those demands, and finally to suggest additional treatment measures. The work has been performed as a literature study comparing twelve different tunnel projects. When a tunnel is built a lot of water is used to chill the rock-drilling equipment. This water is diverted together with water that originates from an inflow of groundwater, and is released to a recipient after treatment. The water pollution originating from the tunnels consists mainly of oil, suspended material and dissolved nitrogen compounds. Mechanical water treatment measures are used today to reduce the amount of oil and suspended material in the water. Measures are currently taken to limit the accidental release of nitrogen from undetonated explosives to the water. Water treatment today considerably reduces the discharge of pollutants. Discharge of polluted water from tunnel construction can cause temporary environmental effects in the recipient. The demands from the environmental protection authorities for reduction of pollution from tunnel construction have mostly been met. The median content for suspended material in treated water from different tunnel projects varies between 210 mg/l and 485 mg/l. Median content for oil varies between 0.28 mg/l and 1.3 mg/l. The median content for dissolved nitrogen compounds in the water varies between 210 mg/l and 485 mg/l. This means that between 0.3 % and 9 % of the original nitrogen content in the explosives was released in the water. Occasional measurements of nitrogen, oil and suspended material can reach a hundred times higher than the median value. In this thesis, a comparison is made between the amount of pollutants that is discharged into water from tunnel construction and the discharge from roads, boats and agriculture. The total amount of water pollution from a tunnel project is of the same magnitude as the annual discharge from a single farm, a motorboat or the runoff from a short stretch of motorway, regarding nitrogen leakage, oil pollution and content of suspended material respectively. The thesis describes existing water treatment measures and suggestions are made about possible improvements to reduce emissions from tunnel constructions. The suggestions deal with optimisation of water treatment systems, improved surveillance programs and prevention of pollution discharge. A proposal is made about improving environmental surveillance by replacing the currently used random sampling with continuous sampling that is in proportion to discharge.

Dissolved and Colloidal substances (DSC) and metals are released from woodduring thermomechanical pulp (TMP) production. These components have atendency to accumulate in process waters, as the water circulation systems inintegrated paper mills are closed. Disturbances such as pitch depositions in thepaper machine (pitch problems), specks in the paper, decreased wet and drystrength, interference with cationic process chemicals, and impaired sheetbrightness and friction properties appear when DSC are present. Transition metalions such as manganese results in higher consumption of bleaching chemicals(hydrogen peroxide) and lowers the optical quality of the final product, andaddition of complexing agents, such as EDTA or DTPA, to prevent this is needed.The never ending trends to decrease water consumption and increase processefficiency in pulp and paper production emphasizes that it is very important bothto know the effects of wood substances on pulping and papermaking and to beable to remove them in an efficient way. From a biorefinery point of view, DSCcomponents can be promising renewable raw materials for biofuels, bio‐basedchemicals and materials.In this thesis, a new approach using induced air flotation (IAF) without a cationicpolyelectrolyte addition for the removal of pitch and metal ions from mechanicalpulp mill process waters is presented. The induced air flotation of different processwaters is facilitated by the addition of a chelating surfactant and different foamingagents. The influence of the pH value, temperature and foaming agentconcentration on the flotation efficiency has been investigated. The investigations presented show that the disturbing components can be removed from TMP presswater to a high extent. A 90% decrease in turbidity and a 91% removal of lipophilicextractives (i.e. resin and fatty acids, triglycerides, sterols and steryl esters) fromunbleached and bleached TMP process water can be obtained by addition of acationic surfactant as foaming agent during flotation. Lower amount of foamingagent is needed to purify efficiently bleached TMP process water, than unbleached.Additionally, fibres located in TMP press water are not removed with the foamfraction but purified. A retained concentration of hydrophilic extractives (i.e.hemicelluloses and lignans) in the process water indicates that the flotation isselective. Moreover, by introduction of a new recoverable surface activecomplexing agent, a chelating surfactant, manganese ions in the form of chelatescan be successfully removed from the pulp fibres and separated from the processwater in the same flotation process. Furthermore, from the purified unbleachedTMP process water a 90% recovery of dissolved hemicelluloses by anti‐solventprecipitation was obtained.The findings presented above indicate new possibilities for the internal watercleaning stage to decrease DSC emissions to recipient and for recovery of valuableraw materials from purified process water if flotation technology is applied in anintegrated mechanical pulp mill. / FORE

Submitted by Marcio Emanuel Paixão Santos (marcio.santos@ucsal.br) on 2018-06-20T23:44:59Z No. of bitstreams: 1 DISSERTACAOJANOORLANDOFONTESDECARVALHO.pdf: 1539402 bytes, checksum: b96653f9fc0d7cc509e04c4135f0dc6d (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Linda Bulhosa (linda.gomes@ucsal.br) on 2018-06-21T19:18:26Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 DISSERTACAOJANOORLANDOFONTESDECARVALHO.pdf: 1539402 bytes, checksum: b96653f9fc0d7cc509e04c4135f0dc6d (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-06-21T19:18:26Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 DISSERTACAOJANOORLANDOFONTESDECARVALHO.pdf: 1539402 bytes, checksum: b96653f9fc0d7cc509e04c4135f0dc6d (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009-07-31 / A demanda por água na indústria é sempre crescente devido ao crescimento das capacidades produtivas ao longo dos anos. A Dow Química S.A. também segue a mesma tendência industrial no quesito consumo de água. A presente pesquisa objetivou de maneira geral a otimização do uso da água nas instalações da planta de TDI da Dow Química em Camaçari – Bahia. Especificamente se almejou identificar e avaliar (i) como otimizar o uso de água no processo produtivo; (ii) como otimizar o uso de água nas áreas que não fazem parte do processo produtivo; (iii) e avaliar o impacto do uso de água de chuva na referida unidade. Devido a sazonalidade das chuvas, um reservatório de elevada capacidade se torna necessário caso o uso no processo produtivo venha a ser implementado. Com a aplicação da metodologia de levantamento dos pontos aonde se necessita o uso da água e as demandas relativas, mais o levantamento dos prédios e construções onde se torna possível a captação das águas pluviais e promovendo pequenas alterações no arranjo das instalações atuais e pequenos investimentos correlatos, se chegou a conclusão que bons retornos ambientais e financeiros podem ser obtidos. Com possibilidades de redução de consumo de 430.200 m3/ano as propostas apresentadas reduzirão substancialmente o consumo de água na empresa. Respeitando valores teóricos de utilização estimou-se poder chegar a uma redução de 85,19% com aquele valor acima em relação ao total. Esse valor é tão expressivo que representa o consumo de água anual de uma cidade com 6.000 habitantes como Jiquiriçá, município do estado da Bahia, em 1980. Sendo necessário um investimento de R$ 352.991,00 caso não seja implementada a alteração que envolve o retorno do condensado ao fornecedor de vapor e de R$ 1.302.991,00 se a mesma for implementada. Obtiveram-se os seguintes resultados com a expectativa de, para os valores mencionados a se investir, mais o investimento na gestão da organização com foco também na otimização e reuso de todas as águas existentes e justificáveis na unidade de TDI de Camaçari da Dow Química, o retorno anual na redução de custo previsto é de R$ 871.305,00/ano para a possibilidade que não envolve o retorno do condensado para a empresa geradora de vapor e de R$ 2.298.845,00 / ano para a mudança mais abrangente e definitiva. Qualquer das alternativas escolhidas é de retorno imediato e remunerará o capital investido em menos de um ano o que é classificado como investimento altamente atraente pela empresa. Uma outra possibilidade também é a da empresa decidir investir menos inicialmente e promover pequenas alterações. Neste caso o valor a ser investido seria de R$251.419,00 e o retorno previsto seria de R$ 680.709,00/ano. Dos resultados obtidos, conclue-se que todas as propostas contidas neste trabalho apresentam retorno e rápido seja do ponto de vista ambiental com a preservação e melhor uso de um bem natural de maior importância que é a água, seja do ponto de vista econômico e de visão de sustentabilidade da empresa. / This work intends to maximize the rain water precipitation collection and use it in the gardens and sanitaries besides the production process of the TDI unit in Camaçari, Bahia of the Dow Quimica. Due to the seasonality of the rain water, an storage tank becomes necessary if the usage in the production process will happen. Using the methodology to research and identify all the places where water is necessary with its respectively demands, besides all constructions and buildings where will be possible to collect the rain water with small changes and investment in the current layout of the company unit site, the following results were obtained: investment of R$ 352,991.00 for just all the changes which does not involve the condensate return to the steam provider and R$ 1,302,991.00 if all the changes will be included. The Return of the Investment (ROI) for these two options above will be R$ 871,305.00 per year for the first case and R$ 2,298,845.00 per year for the second case. All two options will give an immediate and permanent return of the investment once implemented. This is classified as high attractive investment by the company. Another alternative would be to invest less initially and promote just small changes. In this case the investment would be R$251,419.00 and the ROI would be R$ 680,709.00 per year. This option is also very attractive. The final conclusion is that all the options showed will give a very good and quick environment and capital ROI. A reduction of more than two hundred thousand of water cubic meter per year and in all the years were estimated after the changes will be implemented.

I Svappavaara har förhöjda halter av uran med avseende på löst fas påträffats i det vatten sombräddas från industriområdet. Halterna av uran överstiger Havs och vattenmyndighetensbedömningsgrunder för utsläpp av särskilt förorenande ämnen till sötvatten. LKAB måstedärför minska utsläppen av uran till recipienten och utvärderar därför hur detta bör utföras.Detta examensarbete utfördes som en del av detta projekt för LKAB och skrevs på distans frånLuleå Tekniska Universitet. Tidigare studier som LKAB utfört har funnit att halten uran med avseende på löst fas iprocessvattnet minskar inom Svappavaaras processvattensystem innan bräddning, vilket tyderpå att fastläggning av uran sker, men var eller hur har inte kunnat beskrivas. LKAB hartillhandahållit data för lösta halter från sitt regelbundna kontrollprogram från perioden 2016-2021 då provtagning utfördes ungefär en gång per månad. Data har kompletterats som en delav examensarbetet och en provtagningsplan för vatten (löst och ofiltrerat), suspenderat materialoch fast material inom Svappavaaras processvattensystem har tagits fram. Samtliga proveranalyserades för halter av 72 grundämnen vid ALS Scandinavias laboratorium i Luleå.Elektrisk konduktivitet, pH, alkalinitet samt anjoner analyserades av LKABs internamiljölaboratorium, temperatur mättes i fält. Haltdata användes för att studerakoncentrationsförändringar mellan provpunkterna och mellan fast respektive löst fas.Förändring i koncentration studerades sedan för att identifiera processteg där en tydligfasförändring sker. Provtagningen bidrog inte med tillräcklig information för att verifiera ettexakt processteg där uran minskar med avseende på löst fas samtidigt som det ökar i fast fas. Data bekräftar att ingående uran till Svappavaaras processvattensystem är i löst- eller kolloidalfas och inte suspenderad- eller fast fas. Samtidigt kan en massbalans beräknad medmodellerade flöden påvisa att den totala ingående mängden uran är något högre än denutgående. Massbalansen är utförd för både fasta och lösta faser. Uran i löst fas korrelerar medalkalinitet och i viss grad med temperatur samt pH inom Svappavaaras processvattensystem. Modellering av SI (Saturation Index), aktiviteter för de analyserade grundämnena och vanligtförekommande mineral har utförts och visar att inga rena uranmineral sannolikt bildas inomprocessen. Mineral som gips skulle enligt modellerade data kunna bildas i anrikningssandenoch uran kan i vissa fall samutfälla med gips. Vid en kort SEM session kunde korn avkalciumsulfat identifieras i anrikningssanden, utan mätbara halter av uran. Modellering ochanalys av data har utförts i Microsoft Excel, PhreeqC Interactive och The Geochemist’sWorkbench. / In Svappavaara elevated dissolved concentrations of uranium have been found in the processwater that is being discharged from the industry area. The uranium concentrations areelevated compared to the standards set by the Swedish Sea and Water authority, whichgoverns the assessment criteria for release of particularly polluting substances to sweet water.For that reason, LKAB must decrease their release of dissolved uranium to their recipient andare evaluating how this is best done. This thesis is written as a part of that work for LKABand is written from Luleå Technical University. Earlier studies performed by LKAB has shown that the concentration of uranium leavingtheir system is lower than the one entering it with respect to dissolved phase only. But whythis is the case and where inside the process the uranium is stuck has not been possible todescribe, which is the aim of this project. LKAB has distributed data for dissolved phasesfrom their regular control sampling between the years 2016-2021, which is sampled monthly.This data was supplemented as a part of this project and a sampling plan was made for water(dissolved and unfiltered), suspended and solid material within Svappavaara process system.All samples where chemically analysed for 72 elements at ALS Scandinavia’s laboratory inLuleå. Electrical conductivity, pH, alkalinity and anions were analysed at the internalenvironmental lab at LKAB, temperature was measured in the field. The data was then usedto study and compare the difference in concentration between solid and dissolved phases toidentify a step in the process where a change is shown. However, the sampling was notsufficient to verify an exact step in the process where a dissolved phase decreases while asolid increases. The sampled data could however show that the uranium entering the process in Svappavaarawas in true dissolved phase or colloidal and not suspended or solid. A mass balance based onmodelled flows shows that the total amount of uranium entering the system is slightly higherthan the one leaving it. The mass balance is done for both dissolved and solid phases.Uranium has also in the dissolved phase been strongly correlated to alkalinity and to a degreealso temperature and pH within the process. Modelling of saturation indices (SI), activities for analysed elements and commonlyoccurring minerals has also been done, which shows that no pure uranium minerals should beformed within the Svappavaara process. However, minerals such as gypsum could accordingto the model precipitate within the tailings and uranium could in some cases coprecipitatetogether with gypsum. At a short SEM session calcium-sulphate grains could be identifiedwithin the tailings, without traceable uranium concentrations. Modelling and the analysis ofdata has been done within Microsoft Excel, PhreeqC interactive and The Geochemist’sWorkbench.

M. Tech., (Chemical Engineering, Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Technology Vaal University of Technology| / The methods used to remove potassium sulphate (K2S04) and other impurities contained within Karbochem finishing plant effluent were investigated. Reverse osmosis was explored for this application. The study was conducted in two steps. The first step focuses mainly on the effluent treatment using BW30 flatsheet as well as BW30-2540 spiral-wound reverse osmosis membranes for the rejection of potassium and sulphate ions. The membranes were supplied by Filmtec. The second step reveals the possible use of potassium sulphate obtained from the brine stream in the fertiliser and fertigation industry by a literature search. Reverse osmosis study was conducted on a laboratory scale unit using flat sheet membranes and also on a pilot plant scale using spiral wound membrane modules. The tests were conducted at a feed pressure of 20 bar(g) with the membrane rejections being 98% and 99.1% on flat sheet membrane, and 96.9% and 99.4% on spiral wound membrane for potassium and sulphates respectively. The results show that both membranes have completely desalinated. Significant reduction in the concentrations of all problematic quality parameters, especially of potassium and the sulphate ions was noted. Granular activated carbon (GAC) bed treatment was recommended for pretreatment of the effluent prior to exposure of the membrane to avoid organic fouling of the membrane. GAC treatment was tested to illustrate its effectiveness to adsorb the COD's. / NRF

Hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) is a process where elevated temperature and pressure is used in order to convert biomass to hydrochar, a coal-like substance with good dewatering properties and many potential uses. HTC can be used to treat digestate from anaerobic digestion, but the process water that remains after the hydrochar has been recovered needs to be treated further in the wastewater treatment plant. In order to make HTC more competitive compared to other sludge treatments it is important to find a good use for the process water. The main objective of this master thesis was to investigate the effects of recirculating HTC process water to the anaerobic digestion. To achieve the objective, both theoretical calculations and experimental trials were performed. The experimental trials were conducted with an Automatic Methane Potential Test System (AMPTS II) in order to investigate the anaerobic digestion in laboratory scale. In the first trial, three substrates, process water, hydrochar, and primary sludge were tested for their biochemical methane potential (BMP). All substrates were mixed with inoculum. Process water had a BMP of 335 ± 10 % NmL/gvs (normalized CH4 production in mL per g added VS (volatile solids)), hydrochar had BMP of 150 ± 5 % NmL/gvs, and primary sludge had a BMP of 343 ± 2 % NmL/gvs. The methane production was almost the same for process water as for primary sludge i.e. no inhibitory effects could be seen when process water was mixed with only inoculum. In the second trial, a more realistic scenario was tested where process water was co-digested with primary sludge at different ratios. The results from the second trial were not statistically reliable and therefore cannot be used on their own to determine with certainty if the process water could have an inhibitory effect in a full-scale anaerobic digester. However, the combined results from both trials indicate that it is unlikely that the process water would have an inhibitory effect. The possible increase in methane yield, if the digestate from a biogas facility was treated in full-scale implementation of the HTC process, was calculated theoretically. The produced process water would have the capacity to increase the methane production with approximately 10 % for a biogas facility. For the calculations, the BMP for process water was assumed to be 335 NmL/gvs and no synergetic effects was considered.