This thesis examines mothers’ risk perceptions and protective actions as they relate to their children’s environmental health. Children are more exposed and vulnerable than adults to environmental hazards, which have been found to be associated with numerous immediate and long-term negative health outcomes, due to physiological and behavioural factors. Despite the responsibility mothers typically bear as primary caregivers to their children, little is known about how they perceive and negotiate these risks in their day-to-day lives. To better understand mothers’ perceptions and associated protective actions across socioeconomic and geographic contexts, a mixed-method approach was employed involving a quantitative telephone survey (n=606) in Peel Region and Ottawa Public Health Units and qualitative face-to-face interviews (n=15) in Ottawa. Risk perceptions were influenced by income and perceived control, and concerns ranged from chemicals in household products to outdoor air pollution. There was a commonly reported perception that mothers should automatically become more concerned and take protective actions once they have children. When financial or other barriers prevented mothers from taking direct action to reduce risks, such as switching to safer products or changing food habits, they may have relied on emotion-focused coping techniques to reduce feelings of concern, including choosing to ignore risk information. Mothers’ information sources were examined to understand how risk information is best internalized; while the most common source of environmental health risk information was the Internet, many mothers expressed their mistrust in it and would have preferred to receive information directly from healthcare providers. This research contributes to the understanding of risk perception and protective action in a largely understudied population and the findings have practical implications for risk management and communication strategies targeting pregnant women and new mothers.

This thesis examines mothers’ risk perceptions and protective actions as they relate to their children’s environmental health. Children are more exposed and vulnerable than adults to environmental hazards, which have been found to be associated with numerous immediate and long-term negative health outcomes, due to physiological and behavioural factors. Despite the responsibility mothers typically bear as primary caregivers to their children, little is known about how they perceive and negotiate these risks in their day-to-day lives. To better understand mothers’ perceptions and associated protective actions across socioeconomic and geographic contexts, a mixed-method approach was employed involving a quantitative telephone survey (n=606) in Peel Region and Ottawa Public Health Units and qualitative face-to-face interviews (n=15) in Ottawa. Risk perceptions were influenced by income and perceived control, and concerns ranged from chemicals in household products to outdoor air pollution. There was a commonly reported perception that mothers should automatically become more concerned and take protective actions once they have children. When financial or other barriers prevented mothers from taking direct action to reduce risks, such as switching to safer products or changing food habits, they may have relied on emotion-focused coping techniques to reduce feelings of concern, including choosing to ignore risk information. Mothers’ information sources were examined to understand how risk information is best internalized; while the most common source of environmental health risk information was the Internet, many mothers expressed their mistrust in it and would have preferred to receive information directly from healthcare providers. This research contributes to the understanding of risk perception and protective action in a largely understudied population and the findings have practical implications for risk management and communication strategies targeting pregnant women and new mothers.

This qualitative study utilized the protective action decision model to explore the risk perceptions and hazard adjustments to the earthquake risk of residents in El Reno, Oklahoma.

Introduktion: Dammbrott är en olycka som har en låg sannolikhet att ske men om den skulle inträffa ha katastrofala konsekvenser. Ett område som skulle drabbas vid ett dammbrott i Luleälven är Luleå kommun som ligger i mynningen av Luleälven. För att områden som anses vara av risk skulle kunna utrymma i tid innan vattennivåerna stiger är det av vikt att individen dels förstår varningsmeddelandena samt förstår vilket ansvar den har vid en utrymning. Kunskapen om varningar och vilket ansvar individen har vid dessa visar tidigare forskning på som låg. Syftet med studien var att få kunskap om vilken förståelse det finns hos individer gällande varningssystem vid ett dammbrott och vilken syn som finns på ansvarsfördelningen i utrymningsprocessen. Studien syftade även till att identifiera vilka hinder och möjliggörande faktorer som kan påverka individen vid en utrymning.  Metod och material: Studien följde en fallstudiedesign med mixade metoder som antog en deduktiv ansats. Den kvalitativa datainsamlingen innefattade semistrukturerade intervjuer med tjänstepersoner vilket baserade på ett avsiktligt urval, som arbetar inom krishantering. Den kvantitativa datainsamlingen skedde i form av webbenkäter, vars urval baserades på ett bekvämlighetsurval där individer som bodde i ett riskområde och var över 18 år, kunde svara på enkäten som skickades ut i Facebook-grupper för de boendeområdena som ansågs vara av risk. Analysen av datamaterialet skedde dels genom en deduktiv kvalitativ innehållsanalys där respondenternas svar analyserades utifrån tidigare förutbestämda kategorier. Det kvantitativa materialet analyserades utifrån både univariata och bivariata analyser samt tolkning av fritextsvar.  Resultat: Studien påvisade en gemensam bild kring att individer har en god förståelse kring vad varningssystemen innebär samt lämpliga handlingar därefter. Dock fanns en skillnad mellan åldersgrupperna där de yngre grupperna i större utsträckning inte vet vad de ska göra om varningssystemen larmar. Gällande ansvar fanns det även här en liknande bild där kommunen har ett stort ansvar i en utrymningssituation samt framfördes det att individen har ett ansvar, främst från respondenternas sida. En möjlighet som framkom var bland annat broschyren som skickades ut och många individer ansåg att den hade hjälp dem förstå vad de skulle göra vid ett dammbrott. Ett hinder som identifierades i samband med detta är att broschyren numera ligger på kommunens hemsida vilket innebär att personer som flyttar in till kommunen vare sig får kunskap om risken eller vad en ska göra om ett dammbrott sker.  Slutsatser: Sammanfattningsvis visar resultatet en liknande syn på kunskapen om varningssignalen samt lämpliga handlingar därefter både utifrån ett individ- och tjänstemannaperspektiv. Angående ansvaret att utrymma behövs vidare forskning då det behövs mer tillförlitlig data från ett individperspektiv. Framtida studier bör fokusera på åldersperspektivet med avseende på kunskapen och handling vid varning men också på de hinder som studien har identifierat. / Introduction: A dam failure is an accident with a low probability to occur but the consequences would be catastrophic. One area that would be affected if a dam failure would occur in Luleälven is the municipality of Luleå which is located at the estuary of Luleälven. To get individuals that live in areas that are regarded of risk, if a dam failure would occur, to evacuate in time before the water levels rise it is of importance that individuals understand the warning and the responsibility of the individual. The aim of the study was to develop a further understanding of the knowledge individuals have regarding the warning systems that would be used in the event of a dam failure, but also the view about the responsibilities in an evacuation process. The study also aims to identify obstacles and enabling factors that may impact the individual if an evacuation would be necessary.  Methods and material: The study had a case study design with mixed methods. The qualitative data collection included semi structed interviews with government officials who works with crisis mangement, which was based on a purposive sampling. The quantitative data collection was in the form om web surveys which used a convenience sampling that included individuals that lived in an area of risk and were older than 18 years. If the individual met the criteria for the data collection they were eligible to answer the web survey that was distributed in different Facebook groups for the different areas that were considered being of risk. The analysis method for the qualitative material was done through a deductive qualitative content analysis and the respondents answers were analyzed from predetermined categories. The quantitative material was analyzed with both univariate and bivariate analysis, and also interpretation of free text answers.  Results: The results showed a common view in regards that individuals have a good understanding of the warning systems and also appropriate actions thereafter. On the other hand, there was an age difference were the younger age groups in a greater extent do not know the appropriate action if the warnings systems go off. With regards to responsibility there is a mutual understanding of the municipality as to having a big responsibility during an evacuation. The individuals responsibility to evacuate was also put forward, mostly from the government officials. An enabling factor to evacuate was the brochure that was sent out a couple of years ago. Many individuals explained how the brochure had helped them understand what the appropriate actions in the case of dam failure. An obstacle that was identified in connection to this was that the brochure is only available on the municipality’s web site, which implies that people moving into the municipality neither get the knowledge about the risk or the appropriate actions if a dam failure would occur.  Conclusion: To conclude, there are similar views regarding the knowledge of the warning system and proper action in response to the warning, both from an individual and officials’ perspective. How the individual perceive their responsibility to evacuate is in need of further research since there is a lack of data from an individual’s perspective. Further research should focus on an age perspective with regards to the knowledge of warning system and action, and also concerning the barriers that have been identified in the study.

<p>Small modular reactors (SMRs) are expected as a suitable candidate to fulfill energy needs in the future. The regulation of the emergency planning zone (EPZ) has been a controversial issue. The possibility of smaller EPZs because of their small core size and passive safety functions is still under discussion. The major emergency responses to radiological incidents in the early phase are evacuation from the area and shelter-in-place within a building. Comparison between the dose incurred during evacuation and that with shelter-in-place is necessary to consider the proper protective actions. The effect of shelter-in-place from small modular reactor hypothetical accident was studied. The source term came from a long-term station blackout (LTSBO) and loss of cooling accident (LOCA), and the time change of air concentration and the ground deposition data through the atmospheric spread around the plant was calculated with Radiological Assessment System for Consequence Analysis (RASCAL), a software developed by United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) to provide dose projection around the plant. Then general one-story and two-story houses were set up, and 6 wall materials were selected for calculating indoor doses. Cloudshine and groundshine were calculated with Monte Carlo methods. In addition, the conservation of mass, air flow model was established to evaluate the inhalation for sheltered cases. The shielding function of each house for each pathway was evaluated by comparing the indoor dose with outdoor dose. The projected dose for sheltered cases was much smaller than that for unsheltered cases. Even though the projected dose will not completely perish, it was quite effective to reduce radiation exposure and can be superior to evacuation. The result will be a basis for calculating the radiological dose for sheltered cases in case of nuclear emergency for SMRs, which will be valuable to have a more effective emergency planning.</p>

The 2019 Dallas Tornado struck a densely populated area, was the costliest tornado in Texas history, and had minimal warning lead time, yet there were no serious injuries or fatalities. To understand why, this study examines individuals' decision-making processes during this tornado using the protective action decision model (PADM). Specifically, it investigates the factors affecting threat belief and evaluation, the facilitators and impediments to protective action, and the effects on future risk perception and hazard adjustment measures. Semi-structured telephone interviews were conducted with 23 survivors to explore their experiences and decision-making processes during this tornado. Interviews were analyzed through inductive coding and a constant comparative approach. Key findings of this study suggest that clear and direct warning messages, coupled with rapid, heuristic-driven reactions, can overcome the impediment of a short-fuse warning time and motivate those at risk to take protective action. Additionally, this study identifies condominium owners as a housing population with unique needs and impediments in the tornado recovery process. Furthermore, results illustrate how the hazard scenario and contemporary technological culture nuance protective action decision-making and future hazard adjustment measures.

Evacuation is oftentimes the best means to prevent the loss of lives when residents encounter certain hazards, such as hurricanes. Emergency managers and experts make great efforts to increase evacuation compliance but risk area residents may procrastinate even after making the decision to leave, thus complicating response activities. Purpose - This study explores the factors determining evacuees’ mobilization periods, defined here as, the delay time between the decision to evacuate and actual evacuation. The theoretical model that guides this research is built on the protective action decision model (PADM). It captures both the social and psychological factors in the process of transferring risk information to mobilization action. The psychological process of risk communication originates from personalized external information and ends with the formation of risk perception, ultimately influencing evacuees’ mobilizations. Design/methodology/approach – Using structural equation modeling (SEM), the model is tested using survey data collected from Hurricane Rita (2005) evacuees in 2006 (N = 897). The residents of three Texas coastal counties (Harris, Brazoria, and Galveston) are randomly selected and telephone-interviewed. Findings – The findings indicate that mobilizations are affected directly by respondents’ concerns of the threats to their personal lives and costs and dangers on their evacuation trips. The perceptions of evacuees can be related to their exposure, attention, and understanding of the risk information. Research limitations/implications – The results suggest that practitioners pay more attention on the residents’ understanding of different types of risks, their abilities to process the risk information, as well as the means information is delivered. Therefore the public authorities should be more active in protecting evacuees’ properties and assets, as well as encourage evacuees to take closer shelters to avoid potential costs on road. Also the community should be more involved in mobilizing evacuation, as long as social cues can assist evacuees to better comprehend the threat information. Originality/value – This study tests the PADM framework empirically and structurally. It also clarifies the definition of evacuation mobilization using a new operation based on the evacuation groups per household.