Adverse experiences have long-term consequences for biological, behavioral, and psychosocial adjustment. Adolescents may be particularly susceptible to these effects due to heightened sensitivity to environmental influences, the protracted development of the prefrontal cortex, and risk for psychopathology. We used a person-centered approach to characterize distinct profiles of adversity in early adolescence, and examined associations with later cognitive control and psychopathology. One hundred and sixty-seven adolescents (53% male) and their primary caregivers participated in a longitudinal study, with approximately one year in between each assessment. At Time 1 (Mage = 14.07 years), we collected reports on seven indicators of adversity: socioeconomic disadvantage, abuse, neglect, household chaos, parent substance use, parent depression, and negative life events. At Times 2, 3, and 4, adolescents' behavioral performance and blood-oxygenation-level-dependent response during a cognitive control task were measured. Two years later, at Time 5, adolescents and their caregiver reported on adolescent internalizing and externalizing symptomatology. Using latent profile analysis, we identified three distinct adversity subgroups: a low risk group, a low socioeconomic status (SES)/high parent substance use (SU) group, and a high risk group. Adolescents in the low SES/high parent SU group had the lowest levels of behavioral cognitive control. Furthermore, the low SES/high parent SU group and the high risk group both had significantly higher levels of psychopathology relative to the low risk group. There were no significant group differences with respect to neural cognitive control, and neither neural nor behavioral cognitive control predicted psychopathology. A cumulative risk approach using a mean score of adversity produced a similar general pattern of results, but obscured the unobserved heterogeneity in adverse experiences. These results highlight the utility of a person-centered approach to the characterization of adversity in adolescence and illustrate distinct developmental consequences for cognitive functioning and psychopathology. We expand upon prior empirical work by demonstrating that the co-occurrence of low SES and parent substance use may place adolescents at increased risk for deficits in behavioral cognitive control, which may be an important target for intervention and prevention efforts. / Doctor of Philosophy / During childhood and adolescence, most individuals are exposed to some form of adversity, such as abuse, neglect, poverty, or parent mental illness. These factors can have long-term effects on brain functioning and mental health. Adolescents may be especially affected by adversity because their brain is in an important stage of development and they are also more sensitive to social and environmental influences. The purpose of this study was to better understand if certain patterns of adversity experiences were associated with adolescents' self-regulation abilities and mental health outcomes. We recruited 167 adolescents and their primary caregivers from the community and asked them to report on adolescents' experiences of adversity at age 13-14. Specifically, we asked about socioeconomic status, abuse, neglect, household chaos, parent substance use, parent depression, and negative life events. Once each year for the next three years, adolescents completed a self-regulation task while they were in a Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) machine. We examined their performance on the task as well as their brain activation. Two years later, at 18-19 years old, adolescents and their caregiver reported on the adolescent's mental health symptoms. Results indicated that there were three groups of adolescents with different combinations of adverse experiences: a low risk group, a low socioeconomic status (SES)/high parent substance use (SU) group, and a high risk group. Adolescents in the low SES/high parent SU group had the worst performance on the self-regulation task. Furthermore, both the low SES/high parent SU group and the high risk group had significantly higher mental health problems relative to the low risk group. There were group differences in terms of brain activation. Finally, neither performance nor brain activation during self-regulation was associated with mental health problems. We also tested these associations by using an average score of adversity, rather than dividing participants into subgroups. When we compared these approaches, the results were generally similar, but the subgroup approach provided more specific information about what types of experiences put adolescents at higher risk for self-regulation and mental health problems. Thus, the subgroup approach may be useful for better understanding the nuanced consequences of adversity. Our findings further show that the co-occurrence of low SES and parent substance use may place adolescents at increased risk for deficits in self-regulation, which may be an important target for intervention and prevention efforts.

Psychopathology is highly prevalent during childhood and adolescence and contributes to a variety of negative outcomes. Attempts to identify etiological factors which contribute to the development of psychopathology in youth have considered the Goodness of Fit between children's temperaments and the behaviors exhibited by their parents (Chess and Thomas, 1999; Zuckerman, 1999). Many studies have demonstrated that the interaction of children's behavioral inhibition and certain parenting behaviors influences children's psychological outcomes. However, the ability to draw firm conclusions from these studies is severely limited by methodological weaknesses. In the current study, data were analyzed from 253 youth (46% male) who completed assessments at 2-years (N=167), 3-years (N=144), 4-years (N=134), 6-years (N=110), and 9-years of age (N=192), and during adolescence (N=78; mean age=14.08 years). Measures of child behavioral inhibition, maternal warmth and control, and child psychopathology were gathered at each time point. Cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses were conducted to explore the moderating effect of maternal warmth and control on the relationship between child shyness and child/adolescent internalizing and externalizing symptoms. With a few exceptions, child shyness significantly predicted child internalizing symptoms at each time point, while maternal warmth and control, and their interaction with child shyness, did not predict child internalizing or externalizing outcomes. Longitudinally, the slope of shyness across childhood significantly predicted adolescent internalizing symptoms. The moderating effect of maternal parenting on this relationship could not be explored due to sample size and missing data restrictions. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that the interaction between child shyness (at each time point) and maternal warmth and control did not predict adolescent psychopathology. Cross-lagged structural equation models analyzed the longitudinal, bidirectional relationships between child shyness and maternal warmth and control. However, youth shyness and maternal warmth/control were not correlated at any time point, youth shyness did not predict future displays of maternal warmth/control, and maternal warmth/control did not impact future levels of youth shyness. Compared to previous studies, the current study's design and methodology had many strengths. However, the findings were largely inconsistent with hypotheses and previous work. Possible explanations for these findings, study limitations, and directions for future research are summarized. / Doctor of Philosophy / The presence of psychological disorders is common during childhood and adolescence and contributes to a variety of negative outcomes. Attempts to determine what is causing these disorders to develop in youth have considered how children's temperaments and the behaviors exhibited by their parents may or may not fit well together. Past research has demonstrated that the interaction of children's fearfulness or shyness and certain parenting behaviors influences children's psychological outcomes. However, the ability to draw firm conclusions from this past research is limited by weaknesses within studies and inconsistencies between them. The current study attempted to address some of these weaknesses and inconsistencies by exploring the relationships among child shyness, maternal displays of warmth and control, and psychological symptoms. A total of 253 children had already participated in one or more assessment sessions when they were 2, 3, 4, 6, and 9-years-old, and, for the current study, 78 of those children completed an assessment as adolescents (average age = 14-years-old). Similar to previous research, at most of the ages, child shyness predicted the likelihood that the children would experience internalizing symptoms (i.e., symptoms of anxiety and mood disorders). Additionally, the way children's shyness scores changed over time also predicted which adolescents would experience internalizing symptoms. However, contrary to previous research, maternal warmth and control did not predict child psychological symptoms. Furthermore, the results did not indicate that certain parenting behaviors were better or worse for children with differing levels of shyness. This study also explored whether child shyness and maternal parenting behaviors were related to one another over time. Results indicated that shyness levels predicted future levels of shyness, and maternal warmth/control predicted future levels of warmth/control. However, again contrary to the findings of previous studies, child shyness and maternal parenting did not predict one another. Because the study findings were largely inconsistent with what was expected, possible explanations for these findings, study limitations, and directions for future research are discussed.

Background: Cognitive perspectives suggest that gambling-related cognitive (GRC) biases contribute to the development and maintenance of gambling problems. Evidence has since accumulated to support these claims: GRCs tend to be stronger amongst problems (and pathological) gamblers, and can be effective therapeutic targets of talking treatments. However a richer account of how GRCs are conditioned by gamblers' game and group interactions might enhance their explanatory power and therapeutic value. Methods: Here, I present the results of an extended programme of research involving: (i) laboratory-based experiments on action-based expressions of illusions of control (IOC; Studies 1-4) and value learning when making decisions under uncertainty (Study 5); (ii) online surveys of Chinese gamblers' participation patterns and beliefs in luck (Study 6); and finally, (iii) qualitative interviews of treatment-seeking professional footballers in the United Kingdom (Study 7). Results: Studies 1-2 demonstrated that (non-problematic) gamblers displayed IOC biases by rolling a simulated die for longer when attempting to hit targets with larger prizes and numerical values. These action-based expressions of IOC were facilitated by congruent target numbers and prizes (Study 3), and heightened competition with gambling co-actors (Study 4). Additionally, computational models of gamblers' choices in Study 5 showed that self-report GRCs, and impulsivity, weaken gamblers' ability to learn the value of competing game options. Next, Study 6 reported that Chinese gamblers' GRCs were related to a broader range of gambling activities, and self-report IOCs mediated the association between beliefs in luck and the number of reported gambling problems. Finally, Study 7 found that social pressures, high income, and work-related frustrations precipitated problematic gambling involvement in treatment-seeking footballers. Discussion: Overall, the results suggest that a richer account of GRCs can be achieved by considering the sensorimotor and sociocultural contexts of gamblers. My thesis concludes with a discussion of GRCs within more recent theoretical developments of the embodied and social cognitions paradigms.

No description available.

No description available.

Schema therapy was developed by Jeffery Young to treat adults with personality disorders, and has been evidenced to be effective in treating both Axis I and Axis II disorders. While Young stipulates that schemas are likely to be in place by adolescence, there is currently little agreement over the appropriateness of schema theory and therapy in understanding and treating psychopathology in adolescence. This thesis aims to explore the evidence–base and potential utility of applying schema theory to adolescent psychopathology, and consists of a systematic review and research article. The review included published studies measuring Early Maladaptive Schemas (EMS) in 12 to 18 year olds, including those exploring relationships between EMS and psychopathology. The search of relevant literature from 1990 to 2012 yielded 19 articles for review, which were then subject to assessment of methodological quality. Most studies were assessed as ‘moderate’ in quality. Good quality evidence was found for the detection of higher rates of EMS in clinical or referred adolescent populations compared to non–clinical populations, as well as some evidence for effects of age and gender on EMS. Less consistent evidence was found for specific associations between individual EMS or domains and particular types of psychopathology or problem behaviour. Common limitations of the articles reviewed included poor control of confounding variables and little testing of EMS alongside contextual constructs to provide validation of findings. The main research article used a quantitative, questionnaire–based cross– sectional design to test the dimensionality of the schema concept in a population of 12 to 18 year–olds, comparing levels of EMS between a referred and non–referred group. EMS were measured alongside attachment and interpersonal behaviours to test their unique predictive effect on psychopathology. Specific relationships between individual groups of EMS and type of psychopathology were also explored. Results showed that the referred group scored significantly higher than the non–referred group on overall schema score. Schemas were found to significantly predict level of psychopathology, over and above prediction by attachment or interpersonal behaviour scores. There was also evidence for the specific prediction of internalising and externalising problem behaviour, affective, anxiety, oppositional–defiant and conduct problems by clusters of EMS. In conclusion, EMS appear to be a valid concept in predicting and understanding psychopathology in adolescence. A conceptual model is suggested for future research to explore the adaptation of schema theory more fully within developmental psychopathology. It is hoped that future research will test other aspects of schema theory in adolescents such as coping styles and modes. It is proposed that, following further validating evidence, this may result in the development of improved interventions for a range of presenting problems in adolescence.

In the general population, psychosis-like experiences have been extensively studied under the psychometric rubric of schizotypy (psychosis-proneness). As such, Phase 1 of this thesis aimed to assess the distribution of schizotypal traits and associated personality correlates displayed within a quota sample of the general population stratified by Gender and Ageband, the emphasis being upon anomalous experiences (positive schizotypy). Respondents (N = 130) completed a battery of established self-report measures assessing thirteen areas of personal experience. Correlational analysis revealed that eleven of the measures of ostensibly anomalous experiences possessed significant intercorrelations. Subsequent principal components analysis identified three factors accounting for 64.91% of the total variance; the factor accounting for the greatest proportion of variance (42.97%) was interpreted as representing a psychological disposition towards reporting ‘Anomalous Cognitions’. The other two factors are named ‘Lifeview System’ (12.60% of total variance) and ‘Social Adaptation Skills’ (9.34% of total variance). From the principal factor inclusion criteria for Phase 2 of the research are explicated. No significant mean Gender differences were revealed for the six self-report measures that provided unique contributions toward anomalous cognitions, the two self-report measures that uniquely contributed toward a lifeview system, or for the single self-report measure that uniquely contributed toward social adaptation skills. Additionally, four of the nine self-report measures which provided unique factorial contributions generated significant mean differences between Agebands, with a further three providing trends toward significant mean differences. Implications for the role of anomalous cognitions, a framework for a lifeview system, and social adaptation skills with regard to psychosis-proneness are discussed. From the primary factor (anomalous cognitions), three experimental groups were identified for cognitive testing: respondents scoring 1) ≤ 20th percentile; 2) 10% ± the mean; and 3) ≥ 80th percentile. This procedure provided a total of 78 participants (three x 26) for Phase 2 testing. Phase 2 of this thesis sought to identify some of the cognitive mechanisms underpinning subclinical anomalous cognitions with a view to deciphering which measures best predicted experimental group membership. A comprehensive literature review highlighted six domains of cognition, five accompanying self-report measures, and two measures of intelligence functioning (verbal and fluid/visuoconstructive), which, following previous research, were utilised as covariate measures. Based on prescribed delineation points, participants were allocated, according to scores on the primary factor from Phase 1, to one of three experimental groups (low-, mid, and high-anomalous cognitions). Of the six cognitive domains—1) sustained visual attention; 2) false (illusory) memory; 3) probability reasoning (decision making); 4) object recognition; 5) reality monitoring; and 6) self-monitoring—four succeeded in eliciting significant mean differences between experimental groups with the noted exceptions of sustained visual attention and self-monitoring. Subsequent canonical discriminant analyses identified that the best predictors of XPG membership were the number of critical lures recognised on the false memory test, the number of correct responses and confidence when uncertain on the object recognition test, plus two self-report measures pertaining to comorbid psychopathology and the vividness of visual imagery. In light of previous research, the inclusion of fasle (illusory) memory biases, the comorbidity of mental pathology (especially, depressive and anxiety-related symptoms), and the vividness of visual imagery are unsurprising; however, the two object recognition variables (the ‘number of correct responses’ and ‘confidence when uncertain’) offer exciting avenues for future research into the continuum of psychosis. Moreover, the ‘confidence when uncertain’ data from the object recognition test (perceptual) and the probability reasoning (decision making) data from the Beads test suggest that cognitive underconfidence may well be an enduring personality disposition in those reporting elevated levels of anomalous cognitions, including positive and disorganised schizotypal personality traits. The results of Phase 2 add confirmatory evidence to previous research suggestive of memory and perceptual biases plus comorbid psychopathology and the vividness of visual imagery as being integral to the psychogenesis of psychosis-like (anomalous) symptomatology.

One of the main goals of research in clinical psychology is to enhance the understanding and conceptualization of psychopathology. As such, it is essential that the model used to classify mental illness be as valid as possible. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed., text rev; DSM-IV-TR, American Psychiatric Association, 2000) provides the current model of psychopathology. However, there has been growing dissatisfaction with the current version of the DSM and there is an increasing view that the DSM taxonomy is scientifically unsound (Brown & Barlow, 2005; Watson & Clark, 2006; Widiger & Samuel, 2005). Quantitative structural models of psychopathology (e.g., Internalizing/Externalizing; Krueger, 1999) have provided an alternative to the DSM model and have greatly advanced the conceptualization of psychopathology. Although these models represent a significant improvement they still have several limitations. First, they exclude many of the "severe" disorders (e.g., psychotic disorders). Second, the placement of some disorders (e.g., OCD and PTSD) in the model has not been consistent. Finally, they are based on categorical diagnoses, which are less valid and reliable than dimensional alternatives (Markon, Chmielewski, & Miller, 2011). Thus, the use of categorical diagnosis as the foundation for empirical models of psychopathology likely results in suboptimal models. Moreover, it has been argued that many diagnoses are excessively heterogeneous, suggesting that analyzing the symptoms that underlie the disorders could result in more fine-grained models that more closely "carves nature at its joints." The current study addresses the limitations of current quantitative models to create an expanded model of psychopathology that likely has increased validity. Structural analyses were conducted at both the syndromal level (to serve as a proxy for dimensional versions of DSM diagnosis) and the symptom level in a large patient sample using both self-report and interview data. A three-factor model, containing Internalizing, Externalizing, and Psychoticism/Oddity dimensions emerged across both sets of analyses The emergence of this model at both the syndromal and symptom level provides strong evidence that a third higher order Psychoticism/Oddity dimension is necessary for a more complete model of psychopathology. The association of these dimensions with normal personality traits and other external correlates also was examined and implications for the conceptualization of psychopathology are discussed.

Demographic, historical, psychometric, and clinical data were obtained from the psychiatric files of all patients manifesting schizophrenic symptomatology who were hospitalized in an adolescent psychiatric facility during a five year period (N= 71). Factor analysis of the usable data resulted in three interpretable factors, which included: (1) aggressive behavior; (2) disturbed family functioning; and, (3) thought disorder. Age of first hospitalization correlated positively with factor three. The results provide support for concerns expressed by a number of scientists and clinicians that schizophrenia may not be a discrete, unitary disorder; and that uncritical downward extension of adult diagnoses to adolescents and prepubescent children may be questionable. The results further suggest that current DSM-III and DSMIII- R subtypes of schizophrenia (which are clinically derived and symptom based), are not validated by empirically derived subtypes that include objective indices of behavior along with clinical symptoms. The correlation of "age of first hospitalization" with one of the three factors suggests that developmental level at the onset of illness may represent an important mediating variable in the severity and prognosis of certain subtypes of schizophrenia.

Homelessness among unaccompanied youth is a unique, yet pervasive, social problem. Youth often become homeless through three central pathways: conflict with family, involvement in the foster system, and involvement in juvenile justice systems. As youth experience homelessness during important developmental period(s), vulnerability to mental illness may occur if not already present. The present study examined the type and prevalence of mental illness. Characteristics of homelessness, health and mental health service utilization, and pathways to homelessness were examined in relation to the occurrence of mental illness. Findings indicated that a variety of characteristics are associated with mental illness. Mental health service utilization was also evaluated.