The approach to water management worldwide is currently in transition, with a shift evident from purely centralised infrastructure to greater consideration of decentralised technologies, such as rainwater harvesting (RWH). Initiated by recognition of drivers including increasing water demand and increasing risk of flooding, the value of RWH is beginning to filter across the academic-policy boundary. However, in the UK, implementation of RWH systems is not straight forward; social and technical barriers, concerns and knowledge gaps exist, which currently restrict its widespread utilisation. Previously, these issues have been examined independently. The research described in this thesis highlights the need for interdisciplinary working to lower the barriers and resolve the concerns. Consequently, a combination of social and engineering research perspectives, methods and analysis is utilised to achieve the aim of the research: the production of a strategic framework to support the implementation of RWH in the UK. The framework is the culmination of empirically derived social and technical evidence bases including: surveys with householders and architects; interviews with small to medium enterprises (SMEs); a design and performance evaluation of a non-domestic RWH system; non-domestic water closet (WC) monitoring to develop a demand profile and a water quality study and health impact assessment (HIA) of a non-domestic RWH system. Results indicate that householders were willing but not able to implement RWH, due to financial constraints and perceived maintenance burdens. For SMEs 5 ‘implementation deficit categories’ were identified, which undermined their ability to implement. The use of continuous simulation tools, with appropriate data, need to be promoted and the non-domestic demand profile derived was distinctly different to the well-established domestic profile, yielding implications for system design. The non-domestic RWH system was able to achieve an average water saving efficiency of 97% for the period monitored and the HIA quantified the risk to health as being within the recognised screening level. Triangulation of the results into an integrated socio-technical evidence base facilitated the identification of three core strategy aims, their corresponding actions and actors (stakeholder groups). The overall strategic framework is presented in the form of a Venn diagram. It is unlikely the comprehensive nature of the strategic framework would have been achieved, if the interdisciplinary process had not been undertaken. Therefore adoption of a socio-technical approach to implementation is vital, if RWH in the UK is to transition from novel to mainstream.

Les phtalates et les alkylphénols sont des composés organiques générés par l'industrie chimique, qui entrent dans la composition des matières plastiques, pour les phtalates, et des détergents, pour les alkylphénols. Leurs productions mondiales avoisinent les 6 millions de tonnes pour les phtalates et 500 000 tonnes pour les alkylphénols. Ces composés sont considérés comme ubiquitaires dans l'environnement, c'est-à-dire qu'ils sont retrouvés dans tous les compartiments environnementaux (de l'atmosphère au milieu naturel). Par ailleurs, ils sont considérés comme des perturbateurs endocriniens et peuvent donc causer des dommages aux faunes et flores présentes dans le milieu naturel. Ce travail de thèse a permis de déterminer les niveaux de contamination des eaux usées en phtalates et alkylphénols dans plusieurs compartiments environnementaux situés en zone urbaine. Ainsi, des prélèvements effectués, par temps sec, ont permis de déterminer la qualité des eaux brutes vis-à-vis des paramètres globaux, des phtalates et des alkylphénols dans les rejets industriels, domestiques, les émissaires parisiens ainsi que dans les eaux usées transitant au sein d'une station d'épuration majeure d'Ile-de-France (Seine Centre, Colombes, 92). Ces résultats reflètent certaines spécificités et disparités du réseau d'assainissement, notamment marqués par la forte variabilité qui entoure, à la fois, le prélèvement et les niveaux de contamination par ces micropolluants. Au niveau des rejets industriels, de forts contrastes ont été observés entre les différents secteurs répertoriés (traitement des textiles, traitement de surface, métallurgie, industries pharmaceutiques, etc.). Globalement, les résultats des flux par équivalent-habitant soulignent que les apports domestiques sont la première source de contamination pour ces polluants en région parisienne. En effet, la contribution des apports industriels est inférieure à 5 %, pour tous les composés, quelque soit le secteur industriel considéré. L'étude des émissaires parisiens a permis de montrer une certaine stabilité temporelle de la qualité des effluents dans la partie avale du réseau d'assainissement. En revanche, cette étude a également mis en exergue des divergences et des similitudes entre les sous-bassins versants drainés par les différents émissaires. Ainsi, une étude statistique a montré que les émissaires Saint Denis Achères et Clichy Achères Argenteuil apparaissent significativement plus contaminés que les émissaires Sèvres Achères Reuil et Clichy Achères Bezons. Au niveau de l'efficacité des ouvrages de traitement, les résultats obtenus pour la station d'épuration de Seine Centre ont confirmé son efficacité pour les paramètres globaux communément utilisés pour déterminer la qualité des eaux usées. D'autre part, les résultats obtenus sur l'abattement des phtalates et des alkylphénols (rendements supérieurs à 83 % pour tous les composés) soulignent que même si les stations d'épuration ne sont, initialement, pas construites pour réduire et/ou éliminer les micropolluants, elles y parviennent de façon significative. A l'échelle des ouvrages, le traitement primaire par décantation physico-chimique lamellaire a permis de mettre en évidence l'élimination des polluants hydrophobes tels que le DEHP, le NP, le DnBP et le BBP. Le traitement secondaire par biofiltration a mis en exergue son efficacité à abattre significativement tous les polluants, aussi bien les composés légers (DEP) que les autres composés / Phthalates and alkylphenols are organic molecules generated by the chemical industry, entering the composition of plastics, for phthalates, and detergents for alkylphenols. Their worldwide productions are around 6 million tons and 500,000 tons, respectively. It is now obvious from the concentrations and contents measured in the various environmental compartments that phthalates and alkylphenols are ubiquitous environmental contaminants. Indeed, they are found in all environmental compartments (from the atmosphere to the natural environment) at significant levels. These contaminants are also recognized as endocrine disrupting compounds and can cause damages to fauna and flora present in the natural environment. This work has identified levels of wastewater contamination of phthalates and alkylphenols in various environmental compartments in urban areas. Thus, samples taken, during dry weather periods, were used to determine the quality of raw water for global parameters, phthalates and alkylphenols within industrial and domestical discharges as well as the sewer network and a major Parisian sewage treatment plant (Seine Centre, Colombes, 92). These results reflect certain characteristics and disparities of the sewer network, including both high variability of the sampling and the contamination levels by these micropollutants. For industrial discharges, significant disparities have been observed between the different sectors listed (textile manufacturing, surface treatment, metallurgy, pharmaceutical industries, etc.). Overall, the results confirm that household inputs correspond to the first source of contamination in Parisian conurbation. Indeed, the contribution of industrial inputs is less than 5%, for all compounds, whatever the industrial sector. The study of the Parisian sewer network showed some temporal stability of wastewaters in the downstream part. This work however also highlighted disparities and similarities between the sub-watersheds drained by the sewer network. Thus, the northern part of the Parisian network (SDA and CAA) appears to be more contaminated than the Southern part (CAB and SAR).The results obtained for Seine Centre wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) confirms the effectiveness of the treatment processes on the removal on the routine water quality parameters. Additionally, the results on the elimination of phthalates and alkylphenols in sewage treatment plant (yields above 83% for all compounds) confirm that even if WWTP are initially not designed for reducing and/or eliminating micropollutants, they proceed significantly. During primary treatment, physicochemical lamellar clarification underlined the removal of hydrophobic pollutants such as DEHP, NP, DnBP and BBP. During the secondary treatment, biofiltration highlighted its effectiveness in eliminating all pollutants, as well as volatile compounds (DEP) and other contaminants

Master of Regional and Community Planning / Department of Landscape Architecture and Regional and Community Planning / Tim Keane / The City of Manhattan, Kansas has been subject to intense flooding in the last couple of years. Areas of the city, within the Wildcat Creek Watershed, have been adversely affected. The City of Manhattan and stakeholders from various walks of life are looking for solutions to alleviate flooding within the area. This Master’s Project looks into rainwater harvesting as one of the solutions to help reduce stormwater runoff and contribute to the alleviation of flooding within the Watershed. Rainwater harvesting is increasingly being recognized as an effective way to reduce stormwater runoff. The project explores the potential benefit of using a network of rainwater harvesting elements, namely rain barrels and cisterns supplemented by rain gardens and other infiltration methods to reduce runoff in the City of Manhattan, Kansas. To assess the benefit of using rainwater harvesting in the City, a neighborhood scale site was chosen and divided into land use types. Three phases were used to assess the impact and implementation of rainwater harvesting. Phase I calculates the volume of runoff generated from each land use type and how much of that runoff can be harvested from the rooftops. The values from the neighborhood scale analysis were then extrapolated to see the impact of rainwater harvesting on a larger scale. Phase II looks at the configuration of a rainwater harvesting system for the structures in each land use type and rainwater reuse options. Finally, Phase III looks at policies, regulations and incentives that can be employed by the City of Manhattan to help encourage rainwater harvesting. This Master’s project seeks to educate the City and its residents about the benefits of rainwater harvesting as a stormwater management tool and provide steps towards potentially using rainwater harvesting as a way to reduce runoff, and help alleviate flooding in the Wildcat Creek Watershed.

não potáveis vêm ao encontro das premissas de sustentabilidade e ao conceito de conservação de água. Sistemas de reúso de águas cinzas e sistemas de coleta e aproveitamento de águas pluviais devem seguir quatro critérios: segurança higiênica, estética, proteção ambiental e viabilidade técnica e econômica. As águas cinzas e as águas pluviais devidamente tratadas podem ser utilizadas no consumo não-potável em edificações como em bacias sanitárias, em torneiras de jardins, na irrigação de gramados e plantas, na lavagem de veículos, na lavagem de roupas, na limpeza de calçadas, na limpeza de pátios, na produção de concretos, na compactação de solos, na recarga de aqüíferos e no uso ornamental como em chafarizes e em espelhos d\'água desde que sua utilização não ofereça riscos à saúde de seus usuários. As águas cinzas podem ser divididas em dois grupos: águas cinzas escuras e águas cinzas claras. As águas cinzas claras são as águas residuárias originadas de banheiras, chuveiros, lavatórios e máquinas de lavar roupas. Já as águas cinzas escuras incluem ainda as águas residuárias provenientes da pia da cozinha e máquina de lavar pratos. O efluente oriundo de vasos sanitários não é denominado de águas cinzas, mas águas negras. A composição das águas cinzas é principalmente influenciada pelo comportamento do usuário, podendo também apresentar variação conforme a região onde a cultura, os costumes, as instalações e a utilização de produtos químicos são diferentes. Microrganismos patogênicos podem ser encontrados nas águas cinzas e nas águas pluviais como, por exemplo, a Escherichia Coli, que é comumente utilizada como indicador de contaminação fecal. Assim, o tratamento das águas cinzas e das águas pluviais deve ser praticado com o intuito de eliminar a matéria orgânica e remover ou inativar os microrganismos patôgenos presentes nessas águas, evitando-se o contato humano direto com águas poluídas e a disseminação de doenças. Alguns cuidados com o uso de sistemas de reúso de águas cinzas e sistemas de aproveitamento de águas pluviais devem ser tomados, a saber: verificar a qualidade da água tratada, fazer manutenção adequada ao sistema, dispor de operação eficaz e segura ao sistema e ao operador, verificar a não ocorrência de conexões cruzadas no sistema de distribuição, fazer uso de avisos com indicação água não potável, fazer uso de tubulações de cores e de conexões diferenciadas, de modo que o sistema ofereça segurança a seus usuários. Este projeto visa a caracterização e o tratamento de águas cinzas e de águas pluviais para consumo não potável em edificações. A primeira etapa do projeto destinou-se à caracterização das águas cinzas residenciais através de análises físicas, químicas e bacteriológicas para a verificação de sua qualidade. A segunda etapa foi dividida em dois grupos: tratamento das águas cinzas residenciais e tratamento das águas pluviais. Neste trabalho foi abordada a caracterização e o tratamento das águas cinzas claras, isto é, as águas residuárias oriundas de chuveiros, de lavatórios e da máquina de lavar roupas. O tratamento das águas pluviais se deu com base nos resultados de caracterização obtidos em May (2004), anexo 2. Para o tratamento das águas cinzas fez-se uso de tratamento biológico aeróbio e para o tratamento das águas pluviais, filtração e desinfecção com cloro. Alguns dos parâmetros analisados durante o período de monitoramento do sistema de tratamento de águas cinzas obtiveram uma redução bastante significativa, por exemplo: cor aparente - 95,1%, turbidez - 98,2%, SST - 94,1%, DBO - 93,4%, DQO - 86,3%, COT - 84,9%, Coliformes termotolerantes - 99,8% e Coliformes totais - 97,8%. Durante os ensaios foi mantido um residual mínimo e máximo de cloro de 0,8 1,7 mg/L. No sistema de tratamento de águas pluviais alguns parâmetros analisados durante o período de monitoramento obtiveram as seguintes reduções: cor aparente - 62%, turbidez - 75,7%, Coliformes termotolerantes - 100% e Coliformes totais - 100%. Durante os ensaios foi mantido um residual mínimo e máximo de cloro de 0,6 1,2 mg/L. Baseado nos resultados das análises realizadas e nos resultados obtidos com o tratamento dessas águas, seus usos para fins não potáveis devem ser estimulados. / The reuse of greywater and the rainwater catchment for non potable uses meets the premises of sustainability and the concept of water conservation. Properly conceived greywater reuse systems and rainwater catchment systems should follow four basic criteria: hygienic reliability, aesthetics, environmental protection and technical/economic feasibility. The greywater and the rainwater, when properly treated, can be used for consumption at buildings, for non potable purposes such as flushing toilet bowls, floors and backyards cleaning, garden irrigation, ornamental uses as in water mirrors and water fountains as long as its use avoid any risk to users health. Greywater can be divided in two groups: dark greywater and light greywater. The greywater is originated from bathtubs, showers, lavatories and washer machines. Dark greywater, has its origin from kitchen lavatory and dishwasher machine. Water from toilet bowls is not called greywater but wastewater. Greywater composition is mainly influenced by user habits and usually results on variations depending on the region, the culture, the costumes, the installation and the kind of chemical products used. Pathogenic microorganisms can be found on greywater and on rainwater as, for example, Escherichia Coli, commonly used as faecal contamination indicator. Greywater and rainwater treatment should be taken so that organic material can be removed or pathogenic microorganisms found can be inactivated, avoiding direct human contact and disease dissemination. Care on processing greywater reuse systems and rainwater catchment systems should be taken, as: verifying treated water quality, appropriated system maintenance, secure and efficient operation for the operator and for the system, the avoidance of crossing conections on distribution system, usage of alert signs about non potable water, different colors and different connection dimensions so that the reuse system offers secure operation for its users. This paperwork aims to the characterization and the treatment of greywater for non potable use in buildings, divided in two sections. The first section of the project aimed the residential greywater characterization through fisical, chemical and bacteriological analysis for quality evaluation. The second section was divided in two groups: the treatment of residential greywater and the treatment of collected rainwater. This project focus on the characterization and on the treatment of light greywater, defined as water collected from showers, lavatories and washer machines. Rainwater treatment was based on the results achieved from May (2004), annex #2. Filtration and chloride disinfection treatment was applied on rainwater and aerobic biological treatment was applied on greywater. Some of the parameters analysed during the monitoring period of the greywater treatment system, achieved a significant reduction as, for example: color: - 95.1%; turbidity: - 98.2%; TSS: - 94.1%; BOD: - 93.4%; COD: - 86.3%; TOC: - 84.9%; Thermotolerants Coliforms: - 99.8%; e Total Coliforms: - 97.8%. During the analysis, the residual chloride was kept on 0.8 to 1.7 mg/L range. On rainwater treatment system some parameters analysed during the monitoring period achieved the following reductions: color: - 62%; turbidity: - 75.7%; Thermotolerants Coliforms: - 100%; and Total Coliforms: - 100%. During the analysis, the residual chloride was kept on 0.6 to 1.2 mg/L range. Based on the results from the water analysis and on the results from the resulting treated water, its non potable uses should be stimulated.

A degradação da qualidade do ar na Região Metropolitana de São Paulo (RMSP) bem como seus efeitos à saúde humana vem sendo estudados há algumas décadas. No entanto, pouco se sabe a respeito dos efeitos causados aos ambientes aquáticos e sua biota. A deposição atmosférica úmida é considerada como importante rota de remoção dos poluentes presentes na atmosfera terrestre. Desse modo, este trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar a toxicidade de amostras de águas de chuva de dois locais, utilizando diferentes organismos-teste. As amostras foram coletadas no Instituto de Pesquisas Energéticas e Nucleares, município de São Paulo, e também no distrito de Taiaçupeba, pertencente ao município de Mogi das Cruzes, SP. As coletas foram realizadas manualmente, com recipientes com capacidade para 20L. Em seguida, as amostras foram levadas ao laboratório para medição de pH e condutividade, onde também foram fracionadas para os ensaios ecotoxicológicos e análise cromatográfica dos íons majoritários. Para as amostras coletadas no IPEN, foram realizados ensaios de toxicidade aguda com o microcrustáceo Daphnia similis e com a bactéria marinha luminescente Vibrio fischeri, além dos ensaios de toxicidade crônica com o microcrustáceo Ceriodaphnia dubia e com a alga Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata. As amostras coletadas em Taiaçupeba foram testadas com os mesmos organismos-teste, com exceção da alga P. subcapitata. Os resultados obtidos neste trabalho indicam que as amostras de águas de chuva dos dois locais foram capazes de provocar efeito tóxico aos organismos-teste expostos. Além disso, foi possível observar que as amostras coletadas IPEN durante o verão-08/09 apresentaram toxicidade mais elevada para D. similis, V. fischeri e C. dubia. Em relação às análises químicas, as maiores concentrações dos constituintes da amostras do IPEN foram nitrato, sulfato e amônio, indicando contaminação por fontes antropogênicas. Ao contrário, as análises químicas das amostras de Taiaçupeba indicaram menor concentração de poluentes em relação às amostras do IPEN. De maneira geral, os resultados das análises químicas convergiram com os resultados dos ensaios ecotoxicológicos para os dois locais. / The air quality degradation in Metropolitan Area of São Paulo (MASP) and also the effect to human health have been studied. However, little is known about the effects to aquatic environments and their biota. Wet atmospheric deposition is considered an important route of atmospheric pollutants removal. Thus, the aim of this work was evaluate the toxicity of rainwater samples from two sites, using different test-organisms. The samples were collected at Instituto de Pesquisas Energéticas e Nucleares, São Paulo city, and also in Taiaçupeba, part of Mogi das Cruzes city. The samples were collected manually, using 20L containers. After collection, the samples were taken to laboratory to measure pH values and electric conductivity, it were separated to ecotoxicological assays and chromatographic ionic analyze. The samples collected at IPEN were submitted to acute toxicity assay with microcrustacean Daphnia similis and luminescent marine bacteria Vibrio fischeri, and also to chronic toxicity assay with Ceriodaphnia dubia and green algae Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata. The samples collected in Taiaçupeba were tested with the same test organisms, except P. subcapitata. Results obtained in this study indicate that rainwater samples from both sites were able to promote toxic effect to tested organisms. Furthemore, it was possible to observe that samples collected at IPEN during summer 08/09 presented high toxicity to D. similis, V. fischeri and C. dubia. The chemical analyzes showed that the highest concentrations of constituents of IPEN samples were nitrate, sulphate and ammonium, indicating contamination by anthropogenic sources. In contrast, chemical analyzes of Taiaçupeba indicated lower pollutants concentration than IPEN samples. Generally, chemical results corroborated with ecotoxicological results for the two sites.

A degradação da qualidade do ar na Região Metropolitana de São Paulo (RMSP) bem como seus efeitos à saúde humana vem sendo estudados há algumas décadas. No entanto, pouco se sabe a respeito dos efeitos causados aos ambientes aquáticos e sua biota. A deposição atmosférica úmida é considerada como importante rota de remoção dos poluentes presentes na atmosfera terrestre. Desse modo, este trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar a toxicidade de amostras de águas de chuva de dois locais, utilizando diferentes organismos-teste. As amostras foram coletadas no Instituto de Pesquisas Energéticas e Nucleares, município de São Paulo, e também no distrito de Taiaçupeba, pertencente ao município de Mogi das Cruzes, SP. As coletas foram realizadas manualmente, com recipientes com capacidade para 20L. Em seguida, as amostras foram levadas ao laboratório para medição de pH e condutividade, onde também foram fracionadas para os ensaios ecotoxicológicos e análise cromatográfica dos íons majoritários. Para as amostras coletadas no IPEN, foram realizados ensaios de toxicidade aguda com o microcrustáceo Daphnia similis e com a bactéria marinha luminescente Vibrio fischeri, além dos ensaios de toxicidade crônica com o microcrustáceo Ceriodaphnia dubia e com a alga Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata. As amostras coletadas em Taiaçupeba foram testadas com os mesmos organismos-teste, com exceção da alga P. subcapitata. Os resultados obtidos neste trabalho indicam que as amostras de águas de chuva dos dois locais foram capazes de provocar efeito tóxico aos organismos-teste expostos. Além disso, foi possível observar que as amostras coletadas IPEN durante o verão-08/09 apresentaram toxicidade mais elevada para D. similis, V. fischeri e C. dubia. Em relação às análises químicas, as maiores concentrações dos constituintes da amostras do IPEN foram nitrato, sulfato e amônio, indicando contaminação por fontes antropogênicas. Ao contrário, as análises químicas das amostras de Taiaçupeba indicaram menor concentração de poluentes em relação às amostras do IPEN. De maneira geral, os resultados das análises químicas convergiram com os resultados dos ensaios ecotoxicológicos para os dois locais. / The air quality degradation in Metropolitan Area of São Paulo (MASP) and also the effect to human health have been studied. However, little is known about the effects to aquatic environments and their biota. Wet atmospheric deposition is considered an important route of atmospheric pollutants removal. Thus, the aim of this work was evaluate the toxicity of rainwater samples from two sites, using different test-organisms. The samples were collected at Instituto de Pesquisas Energéticas e Nucleares, São Paulo city, and also in Taiaçupeba, part of Mogi das Cruzes city. The samples were collected manually, using 20L containers. After collection, the samples were taken to laboratory to measure pH values and electric conductivity, it were separated to ecotoxicological assays and chromatographic ionic analyze. The samples collected at IPEN were submitted to acute toxicity assay with microcrustacean Daphnia similis and luminescent marine bacteria Vibrio fischeri, and also to chronic toxicity assay with Ceriodaphnia dubia and green algae Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata. The samples collected in Taiaçupeba were tested with the same test organisms, except P. subcapitata. Results obtained in this study indicate that rainwater samples from both sites were able to promote toxic effect to tested organisms. Furthemore, it was possible to observe that samples collected at IPEN during summer 08/09 presented high toxicity to D. similis, V. fischeri and C. dubia. The chemical analyzes showed that the highest concentrations of constituents of IPEN samples were nitrate, sulphate and ammonium, indicating contamination by anthropogenic sources. In contrast, chemical analyzes of Taiaçupeba indicated lower pollutants concentration than IPEN samples. Generally, chemical results corroborated with ecotoxicological results for the two sites.

Amostras de água de chuva foram coletadas no campus da USP Ribeirão Preto (RP) de agosto de 2002 a dezembro de 2005. Cerca de 84% (n=127) das amostras apresentaram excesso de acidez, com pH médio de 5,12. Não se observou sazonalidade no pH de acordo com o período de safra da cana. As concentrações médias ponderadas pelo volume (MPV, em mol L-1): K+ 3,9 (n=175), Na+ 2,1 (n=172), Ca2+ 5,0 (n=175) e Mg2+ 1,8 (n=168), observadas em RP, bem como seus fluxos de deposição por via úmida, foram ligeiramente mais elevadas que aquelas encontradas em chuvas de regiões com características semelhantes. As concentrações destes cátions foram sazonais, com um aumento no período de safra, sendo que a maior diferença foi observada para o íon K+, indicando a sua importante fonte na queima de biomassa. A sazonalidade do íon Ca2+ aponta para a importância das atividades agrícolas, intensificadas no período de safra, na emissão deste cátion para a atmosfera. Observaram-se boas correlações lineares entre as concentrações de Na+ e K+ (0,67626) e de Na+ e Ca2+ (0,77822), indicando a possibilidade de emissões pirogênicas e a ressuspensão do solo serem fontes de emissão de Na+. A MPV de carbono orgânico dissolvido (COD) encontrada em RP foi mais elevada que na Amazônia, onde também há intensa queima de biomassa, porém seus fluxos por via úmida em ambas as regiões foram similares (0,42 molCm-2ano-1). As concentrações de COD em RP apresentaram correlações lineares significativas com K+ (0,70341) e com Ca2+ (0,61638), apontando para a queima de biomassa e ressuspensão do solo como fontes importantes de emissão de carbono orgânico para a atmosfera. As concentrações de COD nas chuvas de Araraquara foram ainda maiores que em RP, indicando pronunciadas fontes locais naquela cidade. As MPV (nmol L-1) de Cd 0,54 (n=56), Pb 3,02 (n=94) e Cu, 19,9 (n=98), encontradas nas chuvas de RP foram semelhantes a regiões urbanas e industriais do hemisfério norte, enquanto a concentração de Al (448 nmol L-1, n=126) foi menor, e a de Zn (405 nmol L-1, n=120) apresentou-se dentro das faixas de concentrações relatadas nestes locais. Com exceção de Cd, os demais metais analisados (Pb, Cu, Zn e Al) também apresentaram concentrações significativamente maiores (P=0,05) nas chuvas durante o período de safra, indicando que a queima de biomassa e as atividades agrícolas podem aumentar a emissão destes metais para a atmosfera de RP. A correlação linear significativa entre Pb e Ca2+ (0,53845), indica a participação da ressuspensão do solo no aporte atmosférico de Pb em RP, enquanto a ausência de correlação linear entre Zn e K+ (0,20182) parece indicar a presença de outras fontes significativas de Zn para a atmosfera de RP, além da queima de biomassa. O cálculo do fator de enriquecimento demonstra que Cd, Zn, Pb e Cu estão enriquecidos com relação ao solo na chuva de RP, sugerindo que estes podem ter fontes antrópicas locais e / ou distantes. A análise preliminar de componentes principais não esclareceu o peso das diferentes fontes de emissão atribuídas neste trabalho. / Rain water samples were collected based on events at the University of São Paulo - campus Ribeirão Preto - from August 2002 to December 2005. About 84% (n=127) of the samples had excess of acidity, with an average pH of 5.12. There was no correlation between the pH values and the sugar cane harvest period. The Volume Weighed Means (VWM, in mol L-1) for K+ 3.9 (n=175), Na+ 2.1 (n=172), Ca2+ 5.0 (n=175) and Mg2+ 1.8 (n=168), and their wet fluxes in RP were slightly higher than those reported to regions with similar characteristics. The concentrations for these cations were seasonal, with higher values during the harvest period. The largest difference was observed for K+, indicating its important source in the biomass burning activity. The seasonality showed for Ca2+ is probably related to the higher soil resuspension during the more intense agricultural activities. A good linear correlation observed between Na+ and K+ (0.67626) and between Na+ and Ca2+ (0.77822), suggest that Na+ may have important pirogenic as well as soil dust sources. The VWM for Dissolved Organic Carbon (DOC) in RP was higher than that reported for rainwater in the Amazon region (where the biomass burning is also intense); however, the wet fluxes from both sites were very similar (0.42 mol C m-2 ano-1). DOC concentrations were well correlated with K+ (0.70341) and Ca2+ (0.61638), suggesting that the biomass burning as well as soil dust can be important sources of organic carbon to the atmosphere. DOC concentrations in rainwater from Araraquara were even higher than those for RP, showing a high local source of organic carbon. The VWM (nmol L-1) for Cd 0.54 (n=56), Pb 3.02 (n=94) and Cu 19.9 (n=98) found in the rainwater from RP were similar to urban and industrialized regions of the Northern Hemisphere, while for Al (448 nmol L-1, n=126) it was lower, and for Zn (405 nmol L-1, n=120) the VWM was within the range reported for such areas. Except for Cd, all the other metals measured (Pb, Cu, Zn and Al) also showed higher concentrations (P=0.05) in rainwater samples during the harvest period, suggesting that biomass burning and intensive agricultural activities can increase these species concentrations in the atmosphere. The significant linear correlation between Pb and Ca2+ (0.53845) indicates that soil inputs can be of relevance for Pb atmospheric inputs in RP. On the other hand, the absence of linear correlation between Zn and K+ (0.20182) seems to indicate the presence of other important sources for Zn to the atmosphere besides biomass burning. The calculated Enrichment Factor showed that Cd, Zn, Pb and Cu are anomalously enriched in RP rainwater in relation to soil, suggesting these metals may have antroprogenic local sources as well as distant ones. The preliminary statistical analysis of principal components did not clarify the weight of the different sources of emission attributed in this work.

Um maior conhecimento sobre a composição química da água de chuva pode auxiliar no entendimento de como as atividades agrícolas da região de Ribeirão Preto podem afetar a composição da atmosfera local e regional. A proposta do presente estudo é determinar a concentração de íons majoritários e etanol na água de chuva de Ribeirão Preto, investigar suas fontes, e avaliar a possível sazonalidade dessas espécies químicas. As amostras de água de chuva foram coletadas no campus da Universidade de São Paulo (USP), no ano de 2007, e de agosto de 2011 a junho de 2012. No período de safra da cana-de-açúcar as concentrações médias ponderadas pelo volume (MPV) dos íons nas amostras de chuva foram mais elevadas (teste-t; P=0,05) do que no período de entressafra, com exceção do íon H+. As maiores razões entre as médias do período de safra e entressafra foram observadas para o K+ (6,7) e NH4+ (4,2), possivelmente porque os respectivos elementos estão presentes em elevadas concentrações na folha da cana, que é queimada antes da colheita manual da planta. O balanço da eletroneutralidade (considerando os íons: H+, K+, Na+, NH4+, Ca2+, Mg2+ Cl-, NO3-, SO42, F-, H3CCOO-, HCOO- e HCO3-) apresentou um déficit de ânions de 13% que foi atribuído às espécies aniônicas orgânicas presentes na água de chuva que não foram quantificadas. O valor médio ponderado pelo volume de pH nas amostras de chuva deste trabalho foi de 5,4, sendo que grande parte dos eventos de chuva (68%) de Ribeirão Preto apresentou excesso de acidez. O método desenvolvido nesse trabalho para a determinação de etanol em água de chuva não necessitou de etapa de pré-concentração, apresentou boa precisão, exatidão, com baixos limites de detecção (0,46 mol L-1) e quantificação (1,54 mol L-1). A concentração de etanol nas amostras de água de chuva (n= 45) variou de 2,5 a 7,4 mol L-1 (MPV = 5,30 1,17), não sendo observada sazonalidade dentro dos períodos estudados. Possivelmente a principal fonte de emissão de etanol é proveniente de combustíveis automotivos, que por sua vez, tem baixa modulação durante o decorrer do ano. As espécies orgânicas dissolvidas totais (voláteis e não purgáveis) na água de chuva são principalmente moduladas pela queima de biomassa, no período de safra. A concentração média ponderada pelo volume de COD na chuva de Ribeirão Preto durante o período deste estudo foi de 311 ± 59 mol L-1. A fração volátil dissolvida na água de chuva (COV) foi em média (MPV) 16,1 ± 4,0 mol L-1, sendo que a concentração média de etanol representa 33% desse valor. Apesar da concentração relativamente baixa de COV com relação ao carbono total dissolvido, esses compostos na fase gasosa podem desempenhar importante papel em reações fotoquímicas que levam a formação de espécies oxidantes de elevada toxicidade. / The improvement of our knowledge about the chemical composition of rainwater can improve our understanding on how the agricultural activities in Ribeirão Preto can affect the composition of the local and the regional atmosphere. The aim of the present study is to determine the concentration of major anions and ethanol in rainwater from Ribeirão Preto to investigate their sources, and to examine the possible seasonal variability of these species. The rainwater samples were collected at the University of São Paulo - campus of Ribeirão Preto during the year 2007, and from August 2011 to June 2012. During the sugar cane harvest period, the volume weighted means (VWM) concentrations for the major ions in the rainwater samples were significantly higher than those obtained during the non-harvest period (t-test, P=0.05), except for H+ ions. The largest ratios between the ions averages obtained for the harvest and for the non-harvest periods were observed for K+ (6.7) and NH4+ (4.2), possibly because these elements are present at elevated concentration in the sugar cane leave (that is burnt before the manual harvest). The electroneutrality balance (considering the ions: H+, K+, Na+, NH4+, Ca2+, Mg2+ Cl-, NO3-, SO42, F-, H3CCOO-, HCOO- e HCO3-) showed an anion deficit of 13%, and it was attributed to the anionic organic species that were present in the samples but were not identified in this work. The pH VWM was 5.4, and 68% of the rainwater samples from Ribeirão Preto analyzed in the work presented an excess of acid. The method developed in this work for the determination of ethanol in rainwater did not need a pre concentration step, and showed a good precision, accuracy, with low detection and quantification limits (0,46 and 1,54 mol L-1 respectively). The ethanol concentrations in the rainwater ranged from 2.8 to 7.4 mol L-1 (VWM = 5.30 1.17, n= 45), and there was not a clear seasonality within the two studied periods. Possibly the main emission source of ethanol was vehicular fuels that have low variability in the inputs during the year. The variability of total organic compounds (volatile and non-purgeable) in the rainwater samples are mainly due to the biomass burning during the sugar cane harvest period. The VWM of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) in the rainwater collected during this study in Ribeirão Preto was 311 ± 59 mol L-1. The volatile fraction VWM was 16.1 ± 4.0 mol L-1, and on average, 33% of these compounds were ethanol. Although this concentration of volatile organic carbon is relatively low compared to the total dissolved carbon concentration, these compounds in the gaseous phase can have an important role in the photochemical reactions that take place in the atmosphere with consequent formation of highly toxic oxidant species.

não potáveis vêm ao encontro das premissas de sustentabilidade e ao conceito de conservação de água. Sistemas de reúso de águas cinzas e sistemas de coleta e aproveitamento de águas pluviais devem seguir quatro critérios: segurança higiênica, estética, proteção ambiental e viabilidade técnica e econômica. As águas cinzas e as águas pluviais devidamente tratadas podem ser utilizadas no consumo não-potável em edificações como em bacias sanitárias, em torneiras de jardins, na irrigação de gramados e plantas, na lavagem de veículos, na lavagem de roupas, na limpeza de calçadas, na limpeza de pátios, na produção de concretos, na compactação de solos, na recarga de aqüíferos e no uso ornamental como em chafarizes e em espelhos d\'água desde que sua utilização não ofereça riscos à saúde de seus usuários. As águas cinzas podem ser divididas em dois grupos: águas cinzas escuras e águas cinzas claras. As águas cinzas claras são as águas residuárias originadas de banheiras, chuveiros, lavatórios e máquinas de lavar roupas. Já as águas cinzas escuras incluem ainda as águas residuárias provenientes da pia da cozinha e máquina de lavar pratos. O efluente oriundo de vasos sanitários não é denominado de águas cinzas, mas águas negras. A composição das águas cinzas é principalmente influenciada pelo comportamento do usuário, podendo também apresentar variação conforme a região onde a cultura, os costumes, as instalações e a utilização de produtos químicos são diferentes. Microrganismos patogênicos podem ser encontrados nas águas cinzas e nas águas pluviais como, por exemplo, a Escherichia Coli, que é comumente utilizada como indicador de contaminação fecal. Assim, o tratamento das águas cinzas e das águas pluviais deve ser praticado com o intuito de eliminar a matéria orgânica e remover ou inativar os microrganismos patôgenos presentes nessas águas, evitando-se o contato humano direto com águas poluídas e a disseminação de doenças. Alguns cuidados com o uso de sistemas de reúso de águas cinzas e sistemas de aproveitamento de águas pluviais devem ser tomados, a saber: verificar a qualidade da água tratada, fazer manutenção adequada ao sistema, dispor de operação eficaz e segura ao sistema e ao operador, verificar a não ocorrência de conexões cruzadas no sistema de distribuição, fazer uso de avisos com indicação água não potável, fazer uso de tubulações de cores e de conexões diferenciadas, de modo que o sistema ofereça segurança a seus usuários. Este projeto visa a caracterização e o tratamento de águas cinzas e de águas pluviais para consumo não potável em edificações. A primeira etapa do projeto destinou-se à caracterização das águas cinzas residenciais através de análises físicas, químicas e bacteriológicas para a verificação de sua qualidade. A segunda etapa foi dividida em dois grupos: tratamento das águas cinzas residenciais e tratamento das águas pluviais. Neste trabalho foi abordada a caracterização e o tratamento das águas cinzas claras, isto é, as águas residuárias oriundas de chuveiros, de lavatórios e da máquina de lavar roupas. O tratamento das águas pluviais se deu com base nos resultados de caracterização obtidos em May (2004), anexo 2. Para o tratamento das águas cinzas fez-se uso de tratamento biológico aeróbio e para o tratamento das águas pluviais, filtração e desinfecção com cloro. Alguns dos parâmetros analisados durante o período de monitoramento do sistema de tratamento de águas cinzas obtiveram uma redução bastante significativa, por exemplo: cor aparente - 95,1%, turbidez - 98,2%, SST - 94,1%, DBO - 93,4%, DQO - 86,3%, COT - 84,9%, Coliformes termotolerantes - 99,8% e Coliformes totais - 97,8%. Durante os ensaios foi mantido um residual mínimo e máximo de cloro de 0,8 1,7 mg/L. No sistema de tratamento de águas pluviais alguns parâmetros analisados durante o período de monitoramento obtiveram as seguintes reduções: cor aparente - 62%, turbidez - 75,7%, Coliformes termotolerantes - 100% e Coliformes totais - 100%. Durante os ensaios foi mantido um residual mínimo e máximo de cloro de 0,6 1,2 mg/L. Baseado nos resultados das análises realizadas e nos resultados obtidos com o tratamento dessas águas, seus usos para fins não potáveis devem ser estimulados. / The reuse of greywater and the rainwater catchment for non potable uses meets the premises of sustainability and the concept of water conservation. Properly conceived greywater reuse systems and rainwater catchment systems should follow four basic criteria: hygienic reliability, aesthetics, environmental protection and technical/economic feasibility. The greywater and the rainwater, when properly treated, can be used for consumption at buildings, for non potable purposes such as flushing toilet bowls, floors and backyards cleaning, garden irrigation, ornamental uses as in water mirrors and water fountains as long as its use avoid any risk to users health. Greywater can be divided in two groups: dark greywater and light greywater. The greywater is originated from bathtubs, showers, lavatories and washer machines. Dark greywater, has its origin from kitchen lavatory and dishwasher machine. Water from toilet bowls is not called greywater but wastewater. Greywater composition is mainly influenced by user habits and usually results on variations depending on the region, the culture, the costumes, the installation and the kind of chemical products used. Pathogenic microorganisms can be found on greywater and on rainwater as, for example, Escherichia Coli, commonly used as faecal contamination indicator. Greywater and rainwater treatment should be taken so that organic material can be removed or pathogenic microorganisms found can be inactivated, avoiding direct human contact and disease dissemination. Care on processing greywater reuse systems and rainwater catchment systems should be taken, as: verifying treated water quality, appropriated system maintenance, secure and efficient operation for the operator and for the system, the avoidance of crossing conections on distribution system, usage of alert signs about non potable water, different colors and different connection dimensions so that the reuse system offers secure operation for its users. This paperwork aims to the characterization and the treatment of greywater for non potable use in buildings, divided in two sections. The first section of the project aimed the residential greywater characterization through fisical, chemical and bacteriological analysis for quality evaluation. The second section was divided in two groups: the treatment of residential greywater and the treatment of collected rainwater. This project focus on the characterization and on the treatment of light greywater, defined as water collected from showers, lavatories and washer machines. Rainwater treatment was based on the results achieved from May (2004), annex #2. Filtration and chloride disinfection treatment was applied on rainwater and aerobic biological treatment was applied on greywater. Some of the parameters analysed during the monitoring period of the greywater treatment system, achieved a significant reduction as, for example: color: - 95.1%; turbidity: - 98.2%; TSS: - 94.1%; BOD: - 93.4%; COD: - 86.3%; TOC: - 84.9%; Thermotolerants Coliforms: - 99.8%; e Total Coliforms: - 97.8%. During the analysis, the residual chloride was kept on 0.8 to 1.7 mg/L range. On rainwater treatment system some parameters analysed during the monitoring period achieved the following reductions: color: - 62%; turbidity: - 75.7%; Thermotolerants Coliforms: - 100%; and Total Coliforms: - 100%. During the analysis, the residual chloride was kept on 0.6 to 1.2 mg/L range. Based on the results from the water analysis and on the results from the resulting treated water, its non potable uses should be stimulated.

Thesis (MSc. (Horticulture)) -- University of Limpopo, 2018 / Rainwater harvesting is an old age practice used in water-scarce rainfed crop production areas. It is practiced to supplement additional water for crops with insufficient amounts of rainfall for optimum production. The aim of this study was to assess yield responses of Swiss chard under In-field rainwater harvesting techniques (IRWH) and catchment areas. The trials were conducted at two sites, University of Limpopo experimental farm (Syferkuil) and on farmer’s field at Apel. The main plots were two catchment areas (2 m (1 m runoff strip plus 1 m basin)) and (3 m (2 m runoff strip plus 1 m basin)), while the subplots were five IRWH techniques namely; Control (farmers practice), Rainfed, IRHW (without mulch + irrigation), IRWH+Mulch and IRWH+Mulch+Irrigation. The results obtained showed no significant differences in yield of Swiss chard in relation to catchment areas of 3 and 2 m respectively. However, significant differences in plant height, plant vigour, number of leaves and chlorophyll contents were obtained under different IRWH techniques. Significantly, highest average plant height of 40.75 cm was obtained in IRWH+Mulch compared to Rainfed with the lowest average 28.50 cm at Syferkuil. A similar trend was obtained at Apel. There were significant differences in number of leaves under IRWH techniques; the highest mean of 16.00 was obtained in the control (farmers practice) treatment, while the lowest mean of 9.00 was obtained in IRWH treatment at Apel. At Syferkuil, significantly highest average number of leaves was obtained in the IRWH+Mulch+irrigation treatment, while the lowest average number of leaves was obtained in the rainfed treatment. Regarding the yield of Swiss chard, the significantly highest average yield was obtained under IRWH+Mulch+irrigation and 3 m catchment treatment combination which was 84.86 t ha-1 compared to 20.66 t ha-1 in rainfed and 3 m catchment treatment combination at Syferkuil. Similar trend was found at Apel with the highest average yield recorded in IRWH+Mulch+irrigation treatment combination. Hence, IRWH technique with mulch and irrigation could be adopted by growers in a water-scarce environment like the Limpopo Province of South Africa.