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Land degradation is a process that causes the reduction in resource potential of natural rangelands and occurs widespread throughout southern Africa. This process is mainly characterized by the loss in vegetation cover, which leads to the occurrence of bare and denuded patches, increased soil erosion, changes in species composition as well as bush encroachment by indigenous and alien invasive plant species in savannah areas. Degradation of rangelands has drastically extended at an alarming rate during the last few decades with the main causes being overstocking, extended periods of drought, global climate change, overgrazing and general mismanagement of the land. Many researchers, however, feel that rangeland degradation is mainly caused by a combination of changes in land use practices and climate variability. Land users have, however, been applying a variety of technologies over the years in order to restore affected rangelands and mitigate the effect of degradation. These technologies include passive and active intervention methods, aimed at restoring bare and denuded areas and controlling indigenous bush and alien plant species encroachment. Bush control can be carried out by applying different technologies, involving chemical, mechanical, manual or biological control. The focal point of this study is on bush encroachment, the factors causing the problem, the possible ways of controlling this phenomenon and lastly the incorporation of such information into a user-friendly Decision Support System (DSS). The Decision Support System comprises of two databases as well as a related expert system. Bush encroachment is a matter of great concern in most southern African countries. This study therefore mainly included data from Namibia and to a lesser extent, South Africa, as the main study areas, seeing that this form of degradation greatly influences the biodiversity of rangelands in both these countries. The Namibia Agricultural Union (NLU) identified the need for the development of a user-friendly Decision Support System, in which case studies concerning the different bush control technologies could be stored in a database. Restoration technologies, regarding the occurrence of bare and denuded areas, that have been applied by the land users over a period of time and in a specific environment in the past, have been captured in a computerized database and expert system, serving as a Decision Support System (DSS) and user-friendly consulting tool in a similar study, carried out by Mr. Van der Merwe (1997). This DSS was based on CBR (Case Based Reasoning) methodologies by which a number of case studies, that have previously been stored in the database, can be searched by means of an expert system approach to advise the land user concerning the most appropriate solution (action) to similar degradation problems. The DSS developed by Mr. Van der Merwe was never published or made accessible to the land user in a format that could be consulted by either CD-ROM or the internet. Seeing that the NLU identified the need for a similar DSS containing bush control technologies, it was decided to incorporate both these databases into a single DSS, concerning bush control as well as the restoration of bare and denuded patches. The newly converted DSS is currently known as EcoRestore and consists on two databases: Grass Expert, which focuses on technologies to reclaim degraded rangelands, and Bush Expert, which is more focused on the control of bush encroachment and combating of alien invasives. As mentioned, this study focussed on the development of the Bush Expert database and will therefore only include results, discussions and conclusions of these case studies. The case studies in the Bush Expert database consist of results obtained by means of a questionnaire completed by the land user, in collaboration with the agricultural extension officer, as well as a quantitative vegetation assessment, to determine the success rate of the applied technology. The Bush Expert questionnaire, comprises of questions concerning personal information of the land user (e.g. location of the farm), the situation on the farm before bush control was applied (e.g. information on the environmental factors, such as density of problem trees), as well as the type of control technology applied and the situation of the rangeland after control (e.g. establishment of the herbaceous species). The quantitative vegetation assessments involved the sampling of the woody and herbaceous components in the area where a specific control technology was applied. The density and height classes of the woody component were determined by means of the belt-transect method. By using the descending-point method, the herbaceous component was surveyed to determine the abundance/frequency of the annual and perennial grass species. In order to increase the success of any restoration project, it is important to take the existing indigenous knowledge of local land users, concerning the problem of degradation and mitigation thereof, into consideration. By doing so, the local people and communities have greater control and responsibility over their resources and are able to command a greater range and level of resourcefulness. Taking indigenous knowledge into consideration finally enables the local land users to actively participate in and influence higher-level decision-making processes by which they are affected. A total of 175 case studies in Namibia and nine case studies in South Africa were surveyed. The Namibian case studies were surveyed in the central and northern arid and semi-arid regions, and South African case studies in a limited location within the Limpopo Province. Only 100 of the Namibian case studies have thus far been incorporated into the Bush Expert database. Multivariate data analyses techniques, analysis of variance and correlation analyses were used to analyse the data obtained from the questionnaires and quantitative vegetation surveys. Results were represented in the form of histogrammes, tables and multivariate analysis ordinations. From the results obtained for the Bush Expert database, it was clear that chemical control technologies were most often applied in Namibian and South African case studies (61%). The herbicides most commonly applied as chemical control technology in Namibia included Grazer (20%) and Savana (15%), whilst in South Africa these included Access (33.3%) and Tordon Super (33.3%). Herbicides were mostly applied by means of aerial application (46%) methods in Namibia and as cut-stump treatment (55.5%) by means of knapsack spraying or with a brush in South Africa. The dominant woody species causing bush encroachment problems in Namibia were found to be Acacia mellifera, Acacia reficiens and Dichrostachys cinerea, whereas in South Africa these species included Dichrostachys cinerea, Acacia erubescens and Acacia karroo. The wood of the controlled problem species (dead woody material) is mostly not utilized after control, but rather left on the land to disintegrate and thus contribute to the organic material content in the soil. Dead branches are also used for brush packing, which forms and ideal micro-climate for the germination and establishment of grass seeds, which serves as an erosion control medium and protects grass seedlings against grazing impacts. Some land users do however produce charcoal from certain controlled woody species, in order to recover some of the input costs of bush control. The majority of the case study sites (68%) in Namibia occurred within the 300-450 mm short- and long-term rainfall zones and in South Africa the majority of case study sites occurred within the short-term rainfall zone of 550-600 mm (66.6%) and 400- 500 mm long-term rainfall zone (55.5%). Case studies where chemical and manual bush control technologies were applied indicated the highest success rates after control (81.7% and 75.2% respectively). Success rate as an entity was greatly influenced by the type of control technology applied, the density of the problem woody species after bush control as well as environmental variables such as rainfall and soil clay percentage. No definite trend could be determined concerning the application of a specific bush control technology and a certain problem species. Land users tend to apply a chosen control technology, according to the resources available, such as labour, mechanical implements and finances. The only positive correlation between control technologies and the type of problem species could be found regarding Dichrostachys cinerea. This species was mainly chemically controlled by means of the application of certain herbicides. The most important lesson to be learnt from the surveys completed in the two countries is that it is an absolute necessity to apply a proper after-care programme as a management practice following the initial control of problem woody species. The implementation of after-care determines the final success rate of any applied bush control technology as a restoration practice within a rangeland. Only 11% of the case studies surveyed for Namibia and South Africa indicated the implementation of an after-care programme, which usually involved biological control (e.g. browsing by boer goats or the use of controlled or accidental natural veld fires). The EcoRestore Decision Support System is currently available as an online webversion (www.puk.ac.za/EcoRestore), as well as a CD-ROM version. The CD-ROM version is available in a package containing the CD and user's manual. An example of the package is included in this dissertation. In consulting the databases through question-and-answer procedures, the best action will be proposed to the land user for future rangeland restoration, either the reclamation of denuded areas or the control of bush encroachment. Since the case studies are based on past and existing experiences and research, the land user will have an indication of the expected outcome, should the same advised technology be applied. The EcoRestore DSS does not only offer a consulting tool for extension workers and technicians, but also creates networking and participation between land users and researchers, both locally and between neighbouring countries. The DSS is linked to other national and international websites and databases, to offer users a wider range of information and technologies with regard to agricultural and conservation practices. Better awareness is created amongst land users concerning the problem of rangeland degradation, which might encourage closer monitoring of the degradation and mitigation processes. The EcoRestore DSS was developed in such a way for it to be as user-friendly as possible, in order to reach as many parties involved in current or future restoration programmes. This study involved the development of the first version of the DSS (Version 1.0) and is thus only the prototype system. It is proposed that the Bush Expert database of the EcoRestore DSS, will be expanded in future and additional bush control case studies from other southern African countries will be included. The addition of such case studies will ultimately increase the effectivity of this DSS. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Botany))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2004.

Temperate grasslands and the biodiversity they sustain are becoming increasingly imperilled. Habitat loss and degradation are considered primary causes of grassland species declines. Since livestock production is a dominant use of remaining temperate grassland, livestock producers and the grazing management decisions they make play a vital role in the recovery of grassland species. In this thesis, I examined social and ecological factors that drive habitat management and abundance of prairie wildlife species so as to contribute to conservation planning for prairie species at risk and their habitat. I focused on grassland songbirds because, of all prairie wildlife species, grassland birds have undergone some of the most dramatic declines in recent years. I employed an interdisciplinary approach, using theory and methodology from ornithology, rangeland management and the human dimension of conservation biology to achieve three objectives: i) to determine the extent to which indices of rangeland health explained variation in grassland songbird abundance for ten grassland bird species, including three species currently listed under Canada’s Species at Risk Act: Sprague’s pipit, McCown’s longspur and Chestnut-collared longspur; ii) to describe livestock producer characteristics, summarize producer awareness of and attitudes towards species at risk and the Canadian Species at Risk Act and evaluate how characteristics, awareness and attitudes affect producer willingness to engage in voluntary stewardship actions that support species at risk conservation; and iii) to explore relationships between select social and ecological factors and bird abundance for the three aforementioned grassland bird species at risk to elucidate novel pathways for achieving their conservation. I address the first objective in Chapter 2, where I identify the rangeland health index as a poor predictor of bird abundance and vegetation structure variables, such as litter and vegetation volume, as strong predictors of bird abundance. These findings make a case for further refining the rangeland health index as a tool for biodiversity assessment. In Chapter 3 I achieve the second objective and summarize producer characteristics, awareness and attitudes towards species. I also identify awareness, attitudes and rangeland management learning approach as important to producer willingness to support species at risk recovery. I accomplish the third objective in Chapter 4, where I present results of a structural equation model that upholds bird-habitat relationships identified in Chapter 2 and distinguishes management jurisdiction, size of land holdings and attitudes as important social factors to consider in conservation planning. Chapters 2 and 3 contribute to theory and methodology related to the ecological and social dimensions of grassland bird conservation, respectively. Chapter 4 demonstrates how structural equation models can be used to integrate social and ecological factors, and thereby inform habitat conservation and management. Both social and ecological data presented in this thesis make valuable contributions to producer engagement and habitat management aspects of conservation planning efforts for species at risk in the Milk River watershed of southwestern Saskatchewan. Overall, my findings point to the importance of a joint effort by regional private and public managers to use livestock grazing to create a mosaic of vegetation structure and habitat conditions suitable for the grassland bird community as a whole. This thesis provides a methodological approach that draws on and integrates social and ecological data, methods and concepts, thereby demonstrating how to conduct interdisciplinary research for biological conservation.

Since pastoralism began in Australia???s rangelands, the number of artificial watering points (AWPs) has increased dramatically, such that today, few areas of rangeland are further than 10 km from water. This increased availability of water has caused many ecological impacts. Unfortunately, such impacts are poorly understood in the context of an Australian conservation reserve, thus hindering strategic management. This study examined the spatial distribution of vertebrate (kangaroos, small mammals, lizards and avifauna) and vegetative variables around open AWPs as well as AWPs that have been closed since pastoralism (sheep-grazing) ceased nearly thirty years ago in Sturt National Park, arid New South Wales. The study also examined vertebrate use of AWPs, with a particular emphasis on kangaroos and avifauna. The study revealed that most variables showed few differences in spatial distribution with distance from open and closed AWPs, thus suggesting that the observed piospheric impacts were primarily attributable to historical sheep-grazing. Indeed, piospheric patterns were weak suggesting some recovery over the last thirty years. That kangaroos did not exhibit water-focused grazing is no surprise, since despite their regular use of AWPs, particularly during hot, dry times, the current spatial arrangement of AWPs facilitates regular travel to, and from, such resources allowing kangaroos, like much other fauna, to distribute themselves in relation to food and shelter preferences rather than in relation to water supply. In contrast, the majority of avifaunal groups (excluding ground-dwelling species) were clustered around open AWPs, often irrespective of season, because of food and water requirements. Such spatial concentrations of avifauna are thought to cause a range of interspecific effects. Experimental AWP closure and GIS modelling showed that whilst closure of AWPs will increase the average distance to water, which will have key benefits, the majority of areas in Sturt National Park would still be accessible to most water-dependent species even if all unused AWPs were closed. Strategic retention of AWPs to replace water sources lost since European settlement, aid threatened and migratory species??? conservation and enhance nature-based tourism opportunities is thus recommended and an example of a strategic management and monitoring plan outlined.

A pastagem natural é a principal base para a produção de bovinos de corte no Rio Grande do Sul, deste modo o conhecimento do potencial produtivo e qualidade forrageira se faz necessário uma vez que esta pastagem possui grande importância tanto econômica quanto ecológica. Assim, objetivou-se avaliar o valor nutritivo e a cinética de produção de gases in vitro de algumas espécies forrageiras frequentes no bioma Pampa. Durante os anos de 2009, 2011 e 2012, foram realizadas as coletas de 26 espécies presentes na pastagem nativa da área experimental localizada na Embrapa Pecuária Sul, Bagé, Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil. As espécies coletadas foram transplantadas em três vasos através de mudas ou sementes e acomodados em casa de vegetação. As plantas foram posteriormente amostradas em dois estádios fisiológicos: vegetativo e florescimento pleno. Nestes dois estádios as amostras foram separadas para compor duas frações da planta, sendo planta inteira e folha. Foram estudadas quanto a composição bromatológica e analisadas pela técnica in vitro semiautomática de produção de gases. As leguminosas apresentaram os maiores valores de proteína bruta (PB). A gramínea invasora Eragrostis plana possui os maiores valores de fibra em detergente neutro corrigido para cinzas (FDNc), 800 g/kg, e os teores menores de proteína bruta (PB), além de ter apresentado decréscimo de valor nutritivo com o avanço da idade e maturação da planta. O Desmodium incanum apresentou baixa digestibilidade in vitro da matéria orgânica. A maioria das espécies apresentaram maior produção de gases na planta inteira e também menores valores do parâmetro “C”, pois a planta inteira tem maior conteúdo de parede celular. Houve correlação positiva entre o parâmetro “C” e a digestibilidade do FDNc. Dentre as espécies estudadas o Trifolium repens se destacou pelos valores encontrados nos parâmetros estudados. As espécies nativas Holcus lanatus, Dichanthelium sabulorum e Axonopus affinis apresentaram valor nutritivo bom, sendo espécies que podem ser contempladas em estudos futuros de melhoramento genético. A produção de gases totais foi influenciada pela digestibilidade do FDNc e da digestibilidade da matéria seca. / The natural pasture is the main base for the production of beef cattle in Rio Grande do Sul, thus the knowledge of the productive potential and forage quality is necessary since this pasture has great importance both economically and ecologically. Thus aimed to evaluate the nutritional value and the in vitro gas production kinetics of some common forage species in Pampa biome. During the years 2009, 2011 and 2012, 26 species were collected in a native grassland of experimental area located at Embrapa Southern Region Animal Husbandry, Bagé, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. The species collected were transplanted into three vessels through cuttings or seeds and accommodated in a greenhouse. The plants were subsequently sampled in two physiological stages: the vegetative and flowering. Both samples stages were separated to form two plant fractions, whole plant and leaf. They were assessed for nutritional value and analyzed by semi-automated technique of in vitro gas production to assess the gas production kinetics. Legumes showed the highest values of crude protein (CP). The invasive grass Eragrostis plana has the largest neutral detergent fiber corrected for ashes values (aNDF), 800 g/kg, and lower crude protein (CP), and has presented decrease of nutritive value with advancing age and plant maturation. The Desmodium incanum showed low in vitro digestibility of organic matter. Most species had the higher gas production and also lower values of the parameter "C" in the whole plant, since the whole plant has higher cell wall content. There was a positive correlation between the "C" parameter and the degraded aNDF. Among the studied species Trifolium repens highlighted itself by the values found in the studied parameters. Native species Holcus lanatus, Dichanthelium sabulorum and Axonopus affinis had good nutritive value, being species that can be addressed in future studies of genetic improvement. The total gas production was influenced by aNDF digestibility and dry matter digestibility.

abstract: The introduction of livestock to the vast majority of public lands may be used to simulate the conditions provided by herbivorous grazers in the past, however little data has been collected on the effects of livestock grazing in Sonoran desert habitats. Vegetative species that are characteristic of the Arizona Upland subdivision of the Sonoran desert did not evolve with extensive grazing by large ungulate populations, and therefore the response to livestock grazing is of particular interest. Four historic Parker 3-step clusters in south-central Arizona were sampled in three cohorts between 1953 and 2016 to interpret changes in rangeland health using soil coverage data, species richness and frequency, and long-term photo point comparisons. Cattle grazing was active across the allotment until 1984, allowing approximately 30 years of rest before the third and final cohort was measured. Over the entirety of this study, there was a 66.67% increase in perennial basal hits, a 56.29% increase in rock, and a 44.55% increase of forage basal hits. Decreases were seen in litter (-57.69%) and bare soil hits (-8.76%). Cluster 3 consistently had a lower percent of cover across all classes of vegetation in the 2014 cohort (-81.61%), however the average percent of cover increased by 63.16% (40 hits) across the allotment. Available species richness data from 1971 and 2014 cohorts indicates a 112% increase in unique species; however, species richness increases in the 2014 cohort are largely based on recruitment of non-palatable species (71%). Although the status of some species were undetermined, all individuals identified to species in the invader class (non-palatable) were determined to be native to the study site. Perennial grass frequency became less abundant over the duration of this study, while growth was predominantly observed in shrubs. Increases in species frequency was detected on two of the four clusters measured in the 2014 cohort; the growth was primarily observed in jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis), oak (Quercus spp.), and catclaw acacia (Senegalia greggii) in C4, and hopseed bush (Dodonaea viscosa) in C2. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Applied Biological Sciences 2018

A pastagem natural é a principal base para a produção de bovinos de corte no Rio Grande do Sul, deste modo o conhecimento do potencial produtivo e qualidade forrageira se faz necessário uma vez que esta pastagem possui grande importância tanto econômica quanto ecológica. Assim, objetivou-se avaliar o valor nutritivo e a cinética de produção de gases in vitro de algumas espécies forrageiras frequentes no bioma Pampa. Durante os anos de 2009, 2011 e 2012, foram realizadas as coletas de 26 espécies presentes na pastagem nativa da área experimental localizada na Embrapa Pecuária Sul, Bagé, Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil. As espécies coletadas foram transplantadas em três vasos através de mudas ou sementes e acomodados em casa de vegetação. As plantas foram posteriormente amostradas em dois estádios fisiológicos: vegetativo e florescimento pleno. Nestes dois estádios as amostras foram separadas para compor duas frações da planta, sendo planta inteira e folha. Foram estudadas quanto a composição bromatológica e analisadas pela técnica in vitro semiautomática de produção de gases. As leguminosas apresentaram os maiores valores de proteína bruta (PB). A gramínea invasora Eragrostis plana possui os maiores valores de fibra em detergente neutro corrigido para cinzas (FDNc), 800 g/kg, e os teores menores de proteína bruta (PB), além de ter apresentado decréscimo de valor nutritivo com o avanço da idade e maturação da planta. O Desmodium incanum apresentou baixa digestibilidade in vitro da matéria orgânica. A maioria das espécies apresentaram maior produção de gases na planta inteira e também menores valores do parâmetro “C”, pois a planta inteira tem maior conteúdo de parede celular. Houve correlação positiva entre o parâmetro “C” e a digestibilidade do FDNc. Dentre as espécies estudadas o Trifolium repens se destacou pelos valores encontrados nos parâmetros estudados. As espécies nativas Holcus lanatus, Dichanthelium sabulorum e Axonopus affinis apresentaram valor nutritivo bom, sendo espécies que podem ser contempladas em estudos futuros de melhoramento genético. A produção de gases totais foi influenciada pela digestibilidade do FDNc e da digestibilidade da matéria seca. / The natural pasture is the main base for the production of beef cattle in Rio Grande do Sul, thus the knowledge of the productive potential and forage quality is necessary since this pasture has great importance both economically and ecologically. Thus aimed to evaluate the nutritional value and the in vitro gas production kinetics of some common forage species in Pampa biome. During the years 2009, 2011 and 2012, 26 species were collected in a native grassland of experimental area located at Embrapa Southern Region Animal Husbandry, Bagé, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. The species collected were transplanted into three vessels through cuttings or seeds and accommodated in a greenhouse. The plants were subsequently sampled in two physiological stages: the vegetative and flowering. Both samples stages were separated to form two plant fractions, whole plant and leaf. They were assessed for nutritional value and analyzed by semi-automated technique of in vitro gas production to assess the gas production kinetics. Legumes showed the highest values of crude protein (CP). The invasive grass Eragrostis plana has the largest neutral detergent fiber corrected for ashes values (aNDF), 800 g/kg, and lower crude protein (CP), and has presented decrease of nutritive value with advancing age and plant maturation. The Desmodium incanum showed low in vitro digestibility of organic matter. Most species had the higher gas production and also lower values of the parameter "C" in the whole plant, since the whole plant has higher cell wall content. There was a positive correlation between the "C" parameter and the degraded aNDF. Among the studied species Trifolium repens highlighted itself by the values found in the studied parameters. Native species Holcus lanatus, Dichanthelium sabulorum and Axonopus affinis had good nutritive value, being species that can be addressed in future studies of genetic improvement. The total gas production was influenced by aNDF digestibility and dry matter digestibility.

A pastagem natural é a principal base para a produção de bovinos de corte no Rio Grande do Sul, deste modo o conhecimento do potencial produtivo e qualidade forrageira se faz necessário uma vez que esta pastagem possui grande importância tanto econômica quanto ecológica. Assim, objetivou-se avaliar o valor nutritivo e a cinética de produção de gases in vitro de algumas espécies forrageiras frequentes no bioma Pampa. Durante os anos de 2009, 2011 e 2012, foram realizadas as coletas de 26 espécies presentes na pastagem nativa da área experimental localizada na Embrapa Pecuária Sul, Bagé, Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil. As espécies coletadas foram transplantadas em três vasos através de mudas ou sementes e acomodados em casa de vegetação. As plantas foram posteriormente amostradas em dois estádios fisiológicos: vegetativo e florescimento pleno. Nestes dois estádios as amostras foram separadas para compor duas frações da planta, sendo planta inteira e folha. Foram estudadas quanto a composição bromatológica e analisadas pela técnica in vitro semiautomática de produção de gases. As leguminosas apresentaram os maiores valores de proteína bruta (PB). A gramínea invasora Eragrostis plana possui os maiores valores de fibra em detergente neutro corrigido para cinzas (FDNc), 800 g/kg, e os teores menores de proteína bruta (PB), além de ter apresentado decréscimo de valor nutritivo com o avanço da idade e maturação da planta. O Desmodium incanum apresentou baixa digestibilidade in vitro da matéria orgânica. A maioria das espécies apresentaram maior produção de gases na planta inteira e também menores valores do parâmetro “C”, pois a planta inteira tem maior conteúdo de parede celular. Houve correlação positiva entre o parâmetro “C” e a digestibilidade do FDNc. Dentre as espécies estudadas o Trifolium repens se destacou pelos valores encontrados nos parâmetros estudados. As espécies nativas Holcus lanatus, Dichanthelium sabulorum e Axonopus affinis apresentaram valor nutritivo bom, sendo espécies que podem ser contempladas em estudos futuros de melhoramento genético. A produção de gases totais foi influenciada pela digestibilidade do FDNc e da digestibilidade da matéria seca. / The natural pasture is the main base for the production of beef cattle in Rio Grande do Sul, thus the knowledge of the productive potential and forage quality is necessary since this pasture has great importance both economically and ecologically. Thus aimed to evaluate the nutritional value and the in vitro gas production kinetics of some common forage species in Pampa biome. During the years 2009, 2011 and 2012, 26 species were collected in a native grassland of experimental area located at Embrapa Southern Region Animal Husbandry, Bagé, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. The species collected were transplanted into three vessels through cuttings or seeds and accommodated in a greenhouse. The plants were subsequently sampled in two physiological stages: the vegetative and flowering. Both samples stages were separated to form two plant fractions, whole plant and leaf. They were assessed for nutritional value and analyzed by semi-automated technique of in vitro gas production to assess the gas production kinetics. Legumes showed the highest values of crude protein (CP). The invasive grass Eragrostis plana has the largest neutral detergent fiber corrected for ashes values (aNDF), 800 g/kg, and lower crude protein (CP), and has presented decrease of nutritive value with advancing age and plant maturation. The Desmodium incanum showed low in vitro digestibility of organic matter. Most species had the higher gas production and also lower values of the parameter "C" in the whole plant, since the whole plant has higher cell wall content. There was a positive correlation between the "C" parameter and the degraded aNDF. Among the studied species Trifolium repens highlighted itself by the values found in the studied parameters. Native species Holcus lanatus, Dichanthelium sabulorum and Axonopus affinis had good nutritive value, being species that can be addressed in future studies of genetic improvement. The total gas production was influenced by aNDF digestibility and dry matter digestibility.

Current models of rangeland system dynamics were evaluated in Cosapa, a pastoral community on the Bolivian altiplano. Two specific models were tested: the "equilibrium" model, which assumes biotic interactions dominate rangeland dynamics and lead to system stability , and the "nonequilibrium" model, in which stochastic, abiotic factors control systems such that equilibrium is never attained. A livestock development project (called "Project Alpaca ") working in the community was then assessed in terms of how its assumptions of system dynamics compared with empirical findings. The goal of Project Alpaca was to increase incomes for camelid (i.e., llama and alpaca) herders on the Bolivian altiplano by improving the processing, production, and marketing of alpaca wool. Project implementation was carried out by an indigenous herders' association, with funds provided for construction of a modern alpaca wool processing plant and technical interventions at the farm level. Specific research objectives were to determine which conceptual model of system dynamics (equilibrium or nonequilibrium) best approximated the vegetation and livestock dynamics in Cosapa, and determine the impacts of technical innovations introduced by Project Alpaca . Vegetation dynamics were assessed by comparing plant species composition and production between grazed and ungrazed sites. Pastoral management strategies, livestock population dynamics between 1982 to 1995, and project impacts were assessed using a household survey. Results from the vegetation analyses showed that grazing protection had little impact on plant productivity, but reduced species diversity in wetland areas. The vegetation thus exhibited nonequilibrial characteristics. Regarding livestock dynamics, populations were relatively stable (over 13 years), although mortality was affected by severe drought, suggesting a combination of equilibrial and nonequilibrial interactions . Project Alpaca assumed an equilibrium model by emphasizing system stability and production maximization. The technical interventions showed positive, negative, and neutral associations with animal productivity. Construction of fenced exclosures on communal land has increased conflicts over land tenure rights, and may marginalize poorer households and increase social stratification . Development recommendations include shifting efforts away from intensification interventions that limit movement and flexibility, and strengthening social and economic networks that buffer the impacts of system variability.

Master of Science / Department of Biology / Brett K. Sandercock / Grassland birds are declining throughout their native range. The Flint Hills of eastern Kansas and Oklahoma contain large tracts of tallgrass prairie, but intensification of agricultural practices may be contributing to ongoing population declines. Common rangeland management practices include annual burning coupled with heavy grazing by cattle. This system, known as intensive early stocking and burning, promotes homogeneous utilization of forage by cattle but may not provide habitat for some grassland bird species. Patch-burn grazing is an alternative management system that aims to restore heterogeneity on rangelands by recreating the fire-grazing interaction that would have historically occurred throughout the Great Plains. From 2011-2013, we examined responses of grassland birds to traditional rangeland management and patch-burn grazing by conducting vegetation surveys, line transect surveys, and nest monitoring on privately-owned pastures in Chase County and Greenwood County, Kansas. Vegetative heterogeneity was higher on patch-burned pastures, with unburned patches having higher visual obstruction and less bare ground. Densities of grassland birds differed by species and among habitat strata. Unburned patches on patch-burned pastures were associated with increased densities of Dickcissels (Spiza americana), Eastern Meadowlarks (Sturnella magna) and Grasshopper Sparrows (Ammodramus savannarum). Henslow’s Sparrows (A. henslowii) were only detected on patch-burned pastures. Nest survival of grassland songbirds was similar among management systems but varied by year. Probability of nest parasitism by Brown-headed Cowbirds (Molothrus ater) varied among years and between treatments for Dickcissels and Grasshopper Sparrows, with overall lower rates on burned areas and during drought years. For Dickcissels and Grasshopper Sparrows, there was a significant reduction in host clutch size between parasitized versus unparasitized nests. Overall, nest survival of grassland songbirds in managed rangelands was low. Patch-burn grazing improved rangeland conditions and provided habitat for more species of birds, but did not increase nest survival. Drought conditions in 2012 and 2013 may have influenced the results of this study, as many landowners were unable to burn as planned. Further study is needed to determine underlying factors driving variation in nest success and parasitism rates for grassland birds, particularly on private lands which make up the vast majority of remnant tallgrass prairies.