The recycling rate of post-consumer apparel waste is low. This is compounded by our limited understanding of the fibre recovered from apparel waste and a lack of development in novel applications. Motivated by the growing rate of accumulation in unwanted clothing, this study focused on a number of integrated research themes aimed at understanding the nature of reclaimed cotton fibre, its use in paper-based materials and its utilisation in apparel related applications. Initially, the investigation characterised reclaimed cotton fibres from two different recovery machines (pinned air-layer and cutting mill). The results showed that neither process was capable of producing adequate fibre quality for fine yarn manufacture. The fibres exhibited extensive surface damage, length shortening and an increase in length distribution. After the initial characterisation, studies were undertaken to investigate the use of paper technology to increase the possibility of using reclaimed fibre in apparel. Strength is an important property in apparel related applications, therefore, the strength of reclaimed cotton-based paper was enhanced. The effects of a 4% sodium hydroxide pre-treatment on the beating performance and resultant sheet properties of reclaimed fibre pulp were investigated. At low beating levels, the results showed a significant 35% and 39% increase in tensile strength and energy absorption, respectively. With the treatment it is, therefore, possible to obtain a strong paper with high bulk, which can be further utilised to improve surface softness. Optimum dry and wet strength enhancement of the resultant paper was obtained with the combined addition of 1% carboxymethyl cellulose and 2% polyamideamine-epichlorhydrin. The development of wet strength was vital in order to facilitate uniform twist insertion in subsequent paper yarn manufacture. This study was one of the first to test the viability of using reclaimed cotton fibre in the production of paper yarns suitable for apparel manufacture. The wet-strengthened reclaimed-fibre paper was slit into 3 mm width ribbons, dampened, then twisted into yarns. The resultant yarns (46–193 tex) were uniform but lacked sufficient strength for use in weaving and knitting processes. Analysis of a commercial paper yarn, OJO+ , suggested that strength could be improved if fibre orientation was increased in the machine direction. A further application, in the form of a jacket, was trialled. The focus here was to test sewability using a variety of seam and stitch formations to sew together denim-derived cotton paper. A simple design using lap seams with straight stitching was established as the most effective construction. The final jacket satisfied industry requirements on seam strength and efficiency, however, further investigation into improving comfort and wear-ability will be essential.

Reclaimed water (treated water discharged from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs)) is increasingly used in drier regions for irrigation purposes. This effectively increases the water supply and reduces the amount of WWTP discharge into surface waters but it creates the potential for contaminants in the reclaimed water, such as pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs), to accumulate in exposed crops. The US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) considers PPCPs contaminants of emerging concern due to their near universal presence in the environment and their potential for endocrine disruption. Biochar is gaining attention as a soil amendment and could potentially be used to sequester contaminants in the soil thereby reducing the contaminant uptake in crops. The main objective of this study was to investigate the impact of wood biochar on the corn uptake of PPCPs originating from reclaimed water. Biochars derived from regional trees were chosen because they are rapidly expanding and represent a source of forest fire fuel (pinyon and juniper trees) or because they are frequently attacked by insects (lodgepole pine). The impact of biochar on contaminant uptake was tested by growing corn in non-amended soil and soil amended with biochar while being watered with reclaimed water supplemented with PPCPs (1 mg/L). Sand was also used for comparison since it is a less sorptive growth media. After a 28- day growing period, the corn leaves were dried, extracted, and analyzed for PPCPs.

abstract: The use of Reclaimed Asphalt Pavements (RAP) in newly produced asphalt mixtures has been gaining a wide attention from state Departments of Transportations (DOTs) during the past four decades. However, the performance of these mixtures in harsh and hot climate areas such as Phoenix, Arizona has not been carefully addressed. This research focuses on evaluating the laboratory and field performance of Hot Mix Asphalt Mixtures (HMA) produced with two different RAP contents 15%, and 25%. A road section was identified by the City of Phoenix where three test sections were constructed; the first being a control (0% RAP), the second and the third sections with 15% and 25% RAP contents, respectively. The 25% RAP mixture used a lower Performance Grade (PG) asphalt per local practices. During construction, loose HMA mixtures were sampled and transported to the laboratory for advanced material characterization. The testing included Dynamic Modulus (DM) test to characterize the stiffness of the material, Flow Number (FN) test to characterize the rutting resistance of the mixtures, IDEAL CT test to characterize the crack initiation properties, C* Fracture test to investigate the crack propagation properties, Uniaxial Fatigue to evaluate fatigue cracking potential, and Tensile Strength Ratio test (TSR) to evaluate the moisture susceptibility. Field cores were obtained from each test section and were tested for indirect tensile strength characteristics. In addition, asphalt binder testing was done on the extracted and recovered binders. The laboratory results, compared to the control mixture, indicated that adding 15% and 25% RAP to the mix did not have significant effect on the stiffness, improved the rutting potential, had comparable cracking potential, and gave an acceptable passing performance against potential moisture damage. The binder testing that was done on the extracted and recovered binders indicated that the blended RAP binder yields a high stiffness. Based on results obtained from this study, it is recommended that the City of Phoenix should consider incorporating RAP in their asphalt mixtures using these low to moderate RAP contents. In the future implementation process, it is also recommended to include specifications where proper mixture designs are followed and supported with some of the laboratory tests outlined in this research. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Civil, Environmental and Sustainable Engineering 2019

Recuperation means “regaining something lost or taken” and this has been the main focus of my thesis – essentially reclaiming discarded bricks and educating future bricklayers to work with reclaimed materials. How can the status of craftsmanship be raised through architecture and the processes of crafts be made visible? What opportunities can our current brick stock pose and can derelict buildings be seen as a material bank? My proposal is a bricklaying ”folkhögskola” in Henriksbergshamnen, southwest of central Stockholm, parts laid brick by brick by the students themselves in collaboration with local carpenters.  The college campus juts out on the shoreline, complementing existing buildings and revives the site as a handicrafts center in the region. A brick college will teach future masons to work with reclaimed bricks and educate visitors on the possibilites of the brick and its working hands. Further up from the waterfront, a brick recuperation operation collect, clean and carefully inspect donated bricks that have been discarded as construction waste.

Reclaimed coal-mined lands in the Appalachian region can be successful established and utilized for beef cattle production. Currently, these areas are underutilized partly due to an increase in invasive plant species, such as multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora Thunb. Ex Murr.), autumn olive (Elaeagnus umbellata Thunb.), and sericea lespedeza (Lespedeza cuneata (Dum.-Cours.) G. Don). The steep topography and low economic returns from beef cattle make conventional control methods inhibitive. Goats are effective browsing on invasive plant species. An experiment was conducted in 2006 and 2007 at the Powell River Research and Education Center near Wise, VA (77° 43' 30" west longitude, 38° 57' 30" north latitude, elevation 155.5 m) to determine the effects of an ungrazed control, cattle alone grazing, and mixed grazing goats with cattle on forage biomass, botanical composition, relative plant abundance, and animal performance. The three treatments included an ungrazed control, cattle grazing alone, and mixed grazing goats with cattle. Experimental design was a randomized complete block design with two replicates for the control and three replicates for the grazed treatments. Three times during the grazing season the following were measured, analyzed or assessed: nutritive values of pasture, autumn olive, multiflora rose, and sericea lespedeza were assessed; forage biomass was determined by clipping four 0.25 m² quadrants per control replicate and eight 0.25 m² quadrants per grazed replicate; botanical composition and relative abundance of plant species was assessed by the Double DAFOR method from five fixed points in each control replicate and ten fixed points in each grazed replicate; animals were weighed; autumn olive shrub height was measured with a clinometer from a distance of 10 m from the shrub. Branch length was measured with a tape measure from the base of the branch to the end tip. Shrub survival was measured by counting shrubs in each replicate and determining visually percent leaf-out. Each year, control and cattle alone treatments had greater (P < 0.05). Generally, grass content increased in the grazed treatments from spring to fall while weed content increased in the control treatment (P < 0.05). By the end of the two experimental years, the legume components of the pasture were low. This was more evident in the ungrazed control than the grazed treatments. The relative abundance of tall fescue and orchardgrass (P < 0.05) increased in grazed treatments while sericea lespedeza became a dominant weed in the control (P < 0.05). Goats showed high preference for sericea lespedeza and maintain this plant in a leafy, vegetative stage. This leafy, vegetative growth was found to acceptable to cattle. Cattle performance was not affected by treatment (P < 0.05) but total animal output was higher for mixed grazed compared to cattle alone treatments (P < 0.05). The nutritive values of multiflora rose, autumn olive, and sericea lespedeza were higher than pasture in most instances (P < 0.05). In our experiment, autumn olive was severely impacted by goat browsing. Shrub survival was lower in mixed grazing (61%) by the end of the experiment compared to over 90% for the control and cattle grazing treatments (P < 0.05). Overall, pastures were utilized more uniformly in mixed grazing compared to other treatments. Mixed grazing goats with cattle appear to be a viable option for livestock producers in the Appalachian coal mining region. / Master of Science

The Wisconsin Department of Transportation (WisDOT) uses approximately 11,000,000 tons of aggregate per year for transportation projects. Being able to select durable aggregates for use in transportation projects is of considerable importance, if the aggregate deteriorates then the constructed facility requires premature repair, rehabilitation or replacement. Realizing the importance and also that deficiencies in the current WisDOT testing protocol may exist, it has been concluded that the durability-testing program for Wisconsin aggregates needs to be updated. For example, WisDOT is currently using the Sodium Sulfate Soundness Test (ASTM C 88) to measure durability, a test that was put in place in 1960. The ability of this test to predict durability performance and simulate field conditions is questionable and it has also been criticized for its lack of precision. It should also be noted that the use of recycled and reclaimed aggregates has increased in recent years and not all typical durability tests can be used for testing these aggregates. The Sulfate Test in particular cannot be used for testing Recycled Concrete Aggregates (RCA) because the chemical reaction produces erroneous and misleading results. This project has identified recent advances in the understanding and testing of aggregate durability. An in depth literature review has been conducted and from the compiled information a laboratory testing program was developed. Selection of the tests was based upon the tests' precision, efficiency, and predictive capabilities. In the laboratory-testing phase of this project the proposed durability tests along with current WisDOT durability tests were used to evaluate the full range of Wisconsin aggregates. From the test results it was found that the WisDOT aggregate testing protocol could be reduced substantially by eliminating many of the testing requirements for aggregates that have a vacuum saturated absorption of less than 2%. Also, the addition of several tests was ruled out due to their lack of correlation with field performance records. The Micro-Deval abrasion test is recommended for inclusion in WisDOT testing protocol as a test to measure the abrasion resistance of aggregate while the L.A. Abrasion test is better suited as a measure of aggregate strength. Additional conclusions were made based on the durability testing conducted and an overall testing protocol has been developed and is recommended for implementation by WisDOT. / Master of Science

Thesis (MScEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) plays a large role in the transportation infrastructure and is used to construct highways, runways, parking areas, foot paths and cycle paths. Asphalt is thus being produced in massive amounts around the world. The latest figures on asphalt production indicate that 1.6 trillion metric tonnes of asphalt are produced annually worldwide. This vast quantity of asphalt produced annually has a significant effect on the environment, economy and the surrounding society. According to Mike Acott from the National Asphalt Pavement Association (NAPA) the key strategy to improve HMA is to continuously strive to improve the health safety and environmental practices of HMA. He also emphasises the importance of engaging improvements and innovation in the design and operation phases of HMA as it will result into more health, safety and environmental benefits. (Acott, 2007) It is thus important to improve the sustainability of HMA as it will be used for generations to come. The purpose of this study is to investigate the potential benefits and risks of applying new technology to the current methods of design and construction of asphalt by the South African asphalt industry. The technologies that are investigated in this study are Warm Mix Asphalt (WMA) technology and the use of Reclaimed Asphalt (RA). WMA is asphalt that is designed to be manufactured at a lower temperature than HMA. RA is the use of recycled asphalt material in Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) thus replacing virgin aggregate and virgin bitumen with recycled components. Both these technologies can have an effect on the sustainability of HMA. This study investigates the benefits and risks of the integration and application of WMA technology and RA into HMA industry in South Africa. The study uses interviews along with environmental and cost analyses to investigate this integration. The findings show that these technologies have definite environmental and cost benefits and that the magnitude of these benefits cannot be ignored. The current use of these technologies is a cause for concern as they are used in limited projects and limited authorities have warmed up to the use of these technologies. The risks involved in using these technologies are caused by a lack of experience and knowledge of these technologies which is aggravated as there are no standard specifications for their use. It is important that the right strategy is put into place to integrate these technologies into the South African asphalt industry in such a way that minimal risk and monetary losses are achieved. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: HMA speel 'n groot rol in vervoer-infrastruktuur en word gebruik om paaie, aanloopbane, parkeerareas, voet en fiets paaie te bou. Asfalt word dus wêreldwyd in groot hoeveelhede geproduseer. Die nuutste syfers toon dat 1.6 triljoen kubieke meter asfalt jaarliks wêreldwyd geproduseer word. Hierdie groot hoeveelheid asfalt wat geproduseer word het ‘n beduidende effek op die omgewing, ekonomie en die omliggende gemeenskap. Volgens Mike Acott van die Nasionale Asfalt Plaveisel Assosiasie (NAPA) is die voortdurende strewe om die gesondheids, veiligheids en omgewings impakte van HMA te verminder die sleutel-strategie om HMA te verbeter. Hy beklemtoon ook die belangrikheid om verbeterings en innovering in die ontwerp en bedryf fases van HMA aan te bring wat kan lei tot meer veiligheids, gesondheids en omgewings voordele. (Acott, 2007) Dit is dus belangrik om die volhoubaarheid van HMA te verbeter as dit bewaar wil word vir toekomstige geslagte te kom. Die doel van hierdie studie is om die potensiële voordele en risiko's van die gebruik van nuwe tegnologieë op die huidige ontwerp en konstruksie metodes in Suid-Afrika se asfalt bedryf te ondersoek. Die tegnologieë wat in hierdie studie ondersoek word is Warm Mengsel Asfalt (WMA) en die gebruik van Herwonne Asfalt (RA). WMA is asfalt wat ontwerp is om teen ‘n laer temperatuur as konvensionele HMA vervaardig te word. RA is die gebruik van herwinde asfalt in HMA wat lei tot die besparing van nuwe aggregaat en bitumen. Beide hierdie tegnologieë kan 'n invloed op die volhoubaarheid van HMA hê. Hierdie studie ondersoek dus die voordele en risiko's van die integrasie en gebruik van WMA en RA tegnologie in die HMA-industrie in Suid-Afrika. Die studie maak gebruik van onderhoude asook omgewings en koste impak analises om hierdie integrasie te ondersoek. Die bevindinge in die studie toon aan dat hierdie tegnologie definitief voordelig is vir die omgewing en die ekonomie en dat hierdie voordele groot genoeg is om nie geïgnoreer te word nie. Die huidige gebruik van hierdie tegnologieë is 'n rede vir bekommernis, want dit word slegs in ‘n paar projekte aangewend en daar is slegs ‘n paar owerhede wat die tegnologieë ondersteun. Die risiko's wat betrokke is in die gebruik van hierdie tegnologieë word veroorsaak deur 'n gebrek aan ondervinding en kennis van die tegnologieë wat verder vererger word deur die gebrek aan standaard spesifikasies vir die gebruik daarvan.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Civil Engineering / Mustaque Hossain / Hot in-place recycling (HIR) preserves distressed asphalt pavements while minimizing use of virgin binder and aggregates. The final quality of an HIR mixture depends on characteristics of the original binder, aging of the pavement surface during service, and whether or not new binder or rejuvenator was added to the mixture. An HIR mixture should maintain desired properties for additional service periods, making asphalt binder modification inevitable. Asphalt binder modifications in HIR are commonly done by adding an asphalt rejuvenating agent (ARA). However, ARA may adversely affect the qualities of new HIR and potentially fail to improve the quality of the final surface. The objective of this research was to investigate the effects of rejuvenation on HIR performance characteristics by assessing critical performance indicators such as stiffness, permanent deformation, moisture susceptibility, and cracking resistance. A two-step experimental program was designed that included mechanical property measurements of the HIR mixture and rheological properties of the extracted binder. The level of mixing occurring between new and aged binder with ARA was also investigated. HIR Samples were obtained from three Kansas Department of Transportation projects, and Hamburg wheel-tracking device, dynamic modulus, flow number, Texas overlay, thermal stress restrained specimen, and moisture susceptibility tests were conducted on mixtures with and without ARA. Rheological studies on the extracted binder included dynamic shear rheometer and bending beam rheometer tests. The miscibility of new and aged binder was investigated using scanning electron microscope (SEM) images, energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDXS), and the exudation droplet test (EDT). Study results showed significant variability in the mechanical performance of HIR mixtures, which was attributed to the variability of binders as observed in EDT, SEM and EDXS studies. Life cycle cost analysis (LCCA) showed that HIR is an economic maintenance alternative for asphalt projects in Kansas. LCCA results exhibited that pavement design strategies with HIR activities will result in alternatives with lower net present values when compared to alternatives without HIR maintenance activities.

Os vírus entéricos humanos são encontrados no esgoto e em subprodutos dos processos de tratamento. Recentemente vem sendo recomendados como indicadores de qualidade microbiológica em normas da legislação brasileira e também nas de outros países, mas ainda com parâmetros a definir. O objetivo do estudo é a avaliação e a comparação entre métodos clássicos e moleculares aplicados à detecção de vírus entéricos em amostras de água de reúso e de lodo, visando subsidiar a legislação brasileira. Ensaios de semeadura experimental de protótipos de rotavírus e de adenovírus foram realizados nas matrizes ambientais e os vírus detectados por métodos clássicos (cultivo celular e reação de imunoperoxidase) e moleculares (PCR/nested-PCR, RT-PCR e ICC-PCR), determinando-se os limites de detecção de cada método para cada matriz. A pesquisa de rotavírus e adenovírus presentes naturalmente em 25 amostras de água de reúso e em 25 de lodo possibilitou a comparação dos métodos propostos. O ICC-PCR mostrou ser o método mais factível a ser aplicado na área de saneamento. / Human enteric viruses are common contaminants of raw sewage and subproducts of sewage treatment processes. In recent years, those viruses were recommend as new microbiological indicators in different matrices in Brazilian legislation and others countries, although some questions should be elucidated. At present, the aim was to evaluate and compare the efficiencies of standard and molecular virological methods for detection of human enteric viruses in sludge and reclaimed water samples. Rotavirus and adenovirus were experimentally spiked in the proposed matrices and virus recovery and detection limits established for each method and matrice. Viruses naturally presented in 25 samples of sludge and 25 samples of reclaimed water were assayed by all methods and results evaluated and compared for statistical significance. From all methods evaluated, ICC-PCR showed to be the most suitable for virus surveillance in sludge and reclaimed water.

This study was carried out to evaluate the use of heated reclaimed asphalt pavement materials with emulsion and the use of hot mix asphalt with wax (Sasobit) as base course materials. Mixes with lower than optimum and optimum emulsion, as well as with heated reclaimed asphalt pavement material and optimum emulsion were made; also, mixes with conventional asphalt binder and those with asphalt binder and Sasobit were produced at relatively lower temperatures. These mixes were tested for workability, and all but one of the mixes were used for preparation of approximately 0.9 m (35 inches) by 0.9 m (35 inches) 0.125 m (5 inches) slabs. The rates of densification during the compaction of these slabs were compared. Samples cored from the slabs were tested for stiffness, and dry retained tensile strengths. The results showed that heating of reclaimed asphalt pavement material can improve the dispersion as well as densification significantly. The use of asphalt binder was found to be beneficial in improving strength and stiffness, and the use of Sasobit helped to achieve almost similar workabilities and compactabilities at lower temperatures, as compared to those of hot mix asphalt with neat asphalt binder. No significant difference was found between the modulus of the Sasobit and hot mix asphalt samples. The dispersion of asphalt binder seemed to improve with the use of Sasobit at lower mixing temperature. A field project is recommended for evaluating performance of emulsion mixes with heated reclaimed asphalt pavements and asphalt binder mixes with Sasobit.