The growing demand for biofuels in the European Union is expected to have a significant impact on rural environments in sub-Saharan Africa. In the wake of Directive 2009/28/EC, Ghana experienced a rapid rise in foreign land acquisitions and direct investments to its agricultural sector. The potential implications of this development are multi-fold: While proponents of the EU biofuels policy stress the potential for agricultural development and improved energy security in the region, its opponents criticise the lack of binding rules and regulations concerning social sustainability and indirect land use changes. As a means of assessing the validity of these opposing views, this research paper provides an analysis of the directive's impact on Ghanaian energy security and agricultural development in the country. The analysis is based on key informant interviews and a comprehensive literature reviews. It is concluded that the potential of host countries to generate benefits from the cultivation of energy crops largely rests on their institutional framework. In Ghana, foreign biofuel investments appear to have at least partially resulted in negative socio-economic impacts on local rural communities. Formal and informal land rights, as well as land acquisition procedures present significant obstacles. Civil action and the proposal for a new national biofuels policy indicate, however, that the country could eventually emerge as a beneficiary of the global trend towards biofuels.

A busca por energias renováveis no setor de transportes fez com que os biocombustíveis se destacassem. No entanto, a preocupação com a sustentabilidade na produção dessas fontes alternativas motivou diversas iniciativas na proposição de critérios com o intuito de reduzir os impactos ambientais e garantir os benefícios desses biocombustíveis, principalmente relacionados à redução da emissão de gases de efeito estufa (GEE). Países como os Estados Unidos e membros da União Européia criaram legislação específica com a finalidade de direcionar esses critérios tanto para a produção interna, quanto para a importação dessas fontes de energia. A principal metodologia presente nessas legislações e utilizada na caracterização da cadeia dos biocombustíveis é a Avaliação do Ciclo de Vida (ACV). Este trabalho teve por objetivo comparar os resultados da Diretiva Européia para Energias Renováveis, para as emissões de GEE no ciclo de vida do etanol de cana-de-açúcar, com os estudos nacionais de maior relevância, a fim de verificar se há diferenças significativas entre eles. A partir desta análise, foi possível concluir que há diferenças entre os estudos, principalmente relacionadas à etapa agrícola, mas que, no entanto, foram pontuais, sendo balanceadas entre os processos e atingindo, em sua maioria, um resultado final semelhante de emissões de GEE entre eles. Neste trabalho também foram discutidas as incertezas existentes nos estudos de ACV do etanol de cana-de-açúcar, principalmente relacionadas às emissões pelo uso de fertilizantes nitrogenados e a mudança indireta do uso do solo. Além disso, a partir das contribuições de instituições brasileiras no estabelecimento de diretrizes para que o etanol fosse aceito como importante combustível na redução dos GEE, este trabalho apresentou a relevância em se discutir as normativas internacionais de sustentabilidade, para que os critérios não sejam considerados como mais uma barreira protecionista ao comércio de biocombustíveis. / The search for renewable energy to be used in the transportation sector emphasized the role of biofuels as an alternative to fossil fuels. However, concerns about the sustainability in the production of alternative sources stimulated several initiatives aiming to reduce environmental impacts and ensure the benefits of biofuels, mainly related to the reduction of greenhouse gases emission (GHGs). In order to address such question, countries such as United States and European Union members have designed specific legislation establishing social and environmental criteria for domestic production and imports of biofuels. The main methodology adopted in these laws and used to characterize the biofuels chain is the Life Cycle Assessment. Thus, this study aimed to compare the results on GHG emission of the Renewable Energy Directive (RED) in the lifecycle of sugar cane ethanol to most relevant studies developed within the country in order to verify differences between them. From the analysis, it was concluded that there were differences, mainly related to the agricultural phase, but they were specific, and balanced between the processes; resulting, in most cases, in quite similar final GHG emissions. In this work, it were also indicated the uncertainties in sugar cane ethanol LCA studies, mainly associated to emissions due the use of nitrogen fertilizer and indirect land use change. Furthermore, based on the contributions of Brazilian organizations in establishing guidelines for the acceptance of ethanol as an important fuel to GHG emissions reduction, this study showed the relevance of discussing international standards of sustainability, considered another protectionist barrier to biofuels trade.

A busca por energias renováveis no setor de transportes fez com que os biocombustíveis se destacassem. No entanto, a preocupação com a sustentabilidade na produção dessas fontes alternativas motivou diversas iniciativas na proposição de critérios com o intuito de reduzir os impactos ambientais e garantir os benefícios desses biocombustíveis, principalmente relacionados à redução da emissão de gases de efeito estufa (GEE). Países como os Estados Unidos e membros da União Européia criaram legislação específica com a finalidade de direcionar esses critérios tanto para a produção interna, quanto para a importação dessas fontes de energia. A principal metodologia presente nessas legislações e utilizada na caracterização da cadeia dos biocombustíveis é a Avaliação do Ciclo de Vida (ACV). Este trabalho teve por objetivo comparar os resultados da Diretiva Européia para Energias Renováveis, para as emissões de GEE no ciclo de vida do etanol de cana-de-açúcar, com os estudos nacionais de maior relevância, a fim de verificar se há diferenças significativas entre eles. A partir desta análise, foi possível concluir que há diferenças entre os estudos, principalmente relacionadas à etapa agrícola, mas que, no entanto, foram pontuais, sendo balanceadas entre os processos e atingindo, em sua maioria, um resultado final semelhante de emissões de GEE entre eles. Neste trabalho também foram discutidas as incertezas existentes nos estudos de ACV do etanol de cana-de-açúcar, principalmente relacionadas às emissões pelo uso de fertilizantes nitrogenados e a mudança indireta do uso do solo. Além disso, a partir das contribuições de instituições brasileiras no estabelecimento de diretrizes para que o etanol fosse aceito como importante combustível na redução dos GEE, este trabalho apresentou a relevância em se discutir as normativas internacionais de sustentabilidade, para que os critérios não sejam considerados como mais uma barreira protecionista ao comércio de biocombustíveis. / The search for renewable energy to be used in the transportation sector emphasized the role of biofuels as an alternative to fossil fuels. However, concerns about the sustainability in the production of alternative sources stimulated several initiatives aiming to reduce environmental impacts and ensure the benefits of biofuels, mainly related to the reduction of greenhouse gases emission (GHGs). In order to address such question, countries such as United States and European Union members have designed specific legislation establishing social and environmental criteria for domestic production and imports of biofuels. The main methodology adopted in these laws and used to characterize the biofuels chain is the Life Cycle Assessment. Thus, this study aimed to compare the results on GHG emission of the Renewable Energy Directive (RED) in the lifecycle of sugar cane ethanol to most relevant studies developed within the country in order to verify differences between them. From the analysis, it was concluded that there were differences, mainly related to the agricultural phase, but they were specific, and balanced between the processes; resulting, in most cases, in quite similar final GHG emissions. In this work, it were also indicated the uncertainties in sugar cane ethanol LCA studies, mainly associated to emissions due the use of nitrogen fertilizer and indirect land use change. Furthermore, based on the contributions of Brazilian organizations in establishing guidelines for the acceptance of ethanol as an important fuel to GHG emissions reduction, this study showed the relevance of discussing international standards of sustainability, considered another protectionist barrier to biofuels trade.

Aviation greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions have risen faster than any other transport sector to double between 1990 and 2005. Such emissions from aviation could increase another 700 percent globally, and at least 150 percent in the European Union (EU), by 2050 due to continuously increasing consumer demand. To reverse the trend of rising emissions writ large, the EU has set 2030 climate goals of reducing its GHG emissions by 40 percent (relative to 2005) and having 32 percent of gross final energy consumption from renewables. The EU’s recast Renewable Energy Directive (RED-II) calls for 14 percent of transport energy from renewables, gives multipliers to advanced biofuels, and restricts biomass that is from ecologically valuable lands or that causes land use change. Energy security and energy independence are also long-term EU goals. Many of these goals and targets have also been adopted by the European Free Trade Area (EFTA). Despite these efforts, options are limited to reduce aviation emissions compared to other transport sectors, leaving aviation biofuels, also known as renewable jet fuels (RJFs), as currently the only commercialized option. Against this backdrop, in this thesis scenario analyses were conducted to produce biomass from EU+EFTA lands, project RJF yields from this biomass, and estimate emissions savings of these RJFs compared to petroleum jet fuel. Particular effort was devoted to identifying biomass, biofuels, and EU+EFTA lands that comply with RED-II criteria. The two RJF pathways selected were hydroprocessed esters and fatty acid (HEFA) conversion of Camelina sativa vegetable oil and Fischer-Tropsch (FT) synthesis of forestry residue lignocellulosic biomass. Over 117 million hectares in the EU+EFTA was identified as available for Camelina sativa cultivation, which could yield over 64 Mt of RJF each year, or 113 percent of the total jet fuel consumed in the EU+EFTA in 2017. Conversely, if 50 percent of the forestry residues generated as by-products from EU+EFTA roundwood harvesting operations in 2017 were extracted from harvest sites, 40 Mt of forestry residues would be available as biomass, which would yield almost 7.6 Mt of RJF annually (13% of 2017 jet fuel consumption). If all 144 million hectares of EU+EFTA forest lands deemed available for wood supply were logged, 1,772 Mt of forestry residues would be produced in total (at 50 percent extraction), which could result in almost 337 Mt of RJF, or 590% of the jet fuel consumed in the region in 2017. Hence, RJF can be feasibly produced from biomass from EU+EFTA lands, in amounts that meet or exceed the annual jet fuel consumption of the EU+EFTA, and in ways that meet or exceed RED-II sustainability criteria. However, the proportion of these RJF yields to total annual EU+EFTA jet fuel consumption will decrease over time as the number of flights and their resulting emissions increase. The two RJFs also emit 67 percent and 91 percent fewer GHG emissions, respectively, than petroleum-based jet fuel, showing them to be important tools for the EU to meet its 2030 renewables and emissions reductions targets. Producing the biomass feedstocks and RJFs in these quantities will require the EU to make serious decisions on land use trade-offs, such as whether livestock production is more important than biofuel production.

EU har, genom antagandet av paketet för ren energi 2019, erkänt värdet och potentialen hos lokala energisamhällen inom Europeiska unionen. Det har observerats vara ett lönsamt verktyg för de europeiska medborgarna att direkt kunna delta i energiomställningen. Betydelsen av medborgarnas deltagande i kampen mot klimatförändringar har fastställts som avgörande och som en andra pelare bredvid uppifrån-och-ner-strategin genom Parisavtalet 2015. Denna uppsats fastställer definitionen och funktionen av lokala energigemenskapersom en del av den europeiska klimatstrategin. Svenska energimarknadsinspektionen har nyligen släppt en rapport och ett förslag om genomförandet av lokala energigemenskaper i Sverige. Jag tycker att förslaget är otillräckligt och otillfredsställande mot bakgrund av målet och syftet bakom EU-direktiven. Värdet av detta verktyg har inte erkänts i förslaget. Genom att granska deras förslag har jag hittat ett par viktiga aspekter som bör beaktas, särskilt för gemenskaper för förnybar energi, när de implementeras i Sverige. Bland annat bör Sverige göra en vidare utredning kring de ekonomiska incitamenten, möjligheten att förvalta och äga eget nät samt lokala energigemenskaper i relation till de nationella klimatmålen och Sveriges behov. Avslutningsvis kunde konstateras att det finns en hel del att reflektera över innan implementeringen kan färdigställas i Sverige. Anförda aspekter i denna uppsats är långt ifrån uttömmande och avser enbart de aspekter jag funnit särskilt viktiga. För att lokala energigemenskaper ska nå framgång, särskilt gemenskaper för förnybar energi, förutsätter det att Sverige är beredd på att ändra sin nuvarande strategi, men också inse att det finns ett behov av förändring. / EU have, through the adoption of the Clean energy package 2019, recognized the value and potential of local energy communities within the European union. They have been observed to be a profitable tool for the European citizens to be able to directly participate in the energy transition. The importance of the citizens participation in the fight against climate changes have been established as crucial and a second pillar beside the top-down approach through the Paris Agreement. This essay aims to determine the definition and function of local energy communities as a part of the European climate strategy. The Swedish Energy Markets Inspectorate has recently released a report and proposal on the implementation of local energy communities in Sweden. I have found the proposal inadequate and unsatisfactory in the light of the goal and purpose behind the EU directives. The value of this tool has not been recognised in the proposal. By reviewing their proposal, I have found a couple of key aspects that should be heeded, especially concerning Renewable energy communities, when implemented in Sweden. For example, it is deemed necessary that Sweden needs to further investigate the economic incentivesfor these communities. Further investigation is also needed regarding the possibility for Renewable energy communities to own and govern their own grid. Local energy communities as a tool to achieve the national climate goals and to solve other energy-related issues in Sweden should be explored. Finally, we can ascertain that there are several aspects to reflect further upon before the finalization of the implementation of local energy communities. Aspects touched upon in this essay is far from exhaustive and reflect those that I have deemed to be of utmost importance. To unlock the potential of local energy communities and ensure their success, especially concerning renewable energy communities, Sweden must be prepared to change their current strategy as well as realize the need for said change.

Die Ziele der vorliegenden Studie sind es, sowohl die Faktoren zu identifizieren, die den Ethanol-Kraftstoffmarkt der EU27 und der USA bis zum Jahr 2023 entscheidend beeinflussen werden, als auch die Bildung unterschiedlicher Szenarien, die den jeweiligen Markt im Jahr 2023 beschreiben. Anlass der Untersuchung war die Erkenntnis, dass die etablierten Forschungsinstitute ein weiteres Wachstum des Ethanolmarktes der EU27 und der USA prognostizieren, obwohl derzeitig eine starke Verunsicherung der Märkte vorherrscht und es im Jahr 2012 zu einem Rückgang der Ethanolproduktion in beiden Regionen gekommen ist. Die Verunsicherung des Ethanolmarktes der EU27 ist auf eine mögliche Änderung der politischen Förderung von Bi-okraftstoffen zurückzuführen, um einen Wandel des momentanen Ethanolmarktes der ersten Generation hin zu einem Markt der zweiten Generation zu erreichen. Der US-amerikanische Ethanolmarkt wird durch die „Blend Wall“-Problematik und einer möglichen Absenkung der Verbrauchsmandate des RFS 2 verunsichert. Die Erfüllung der beiden genannten Untersuchungsziele erfolgt mittels eines optimierten Ver-fahrens der Szenario-Technik, welches sich in die drei Kernschritte „Szenariofeld-Analyse“, „Szenario-Prognostik“ und „Szenario-Bildung und -Konsistenzprüfung“ untergliedert. Für den Ethanolmarkt der EU27 wird nach Durchführung des ersten Kernschritts ersichtlich, dass der Markt entscheidend von politischen Faktoren beeinflusst werden wird. Auch der US-amerikanische Markt wird in Zukunft erheblich durch die Politik und die „Blend Wall“-Problematik bestimmt sein. Die Erstellung der Szenarien erfolgt mithilfe der Kernschritte 2 und 3. Der Ethanolmarkt der EU27 im Jahr 2023 wird durch vier Szenarien beschrieben, die sowohl einen starken Anstieg des Ethanolmarktes der ersten Generation als auch einen Wandel des Marktes hin zur zwei-ten Generation prognostizieren. Infolge des Wandels würde der Markt schrumpfen und keine Nachfrage mehr nach Biokraftstoffen der ersten Generation in der EU27 bestehen. Eine sol-che Entwicklung würde die bereits bestehende Ethanolindustrie der ersten Generation in ihrer Existenz bedrohen. Der US-amerikanische Ethanolmarkt im Jahr 2023 wird ebenfalls durch vier Szenarien dar-gestellt. Beschreiben diese auf der einen Seite einen sehr starken Anstieg des Marktes, da der RFS 2 unverändert bleibt, prognostizieren sie auf der anderen Seite aufgrund einer star-ken Kürzung des RFS 2 ein nur moderates Marktwachstum. Im Gegensatz zur EU27 wird die bereits bestehende Ethanolindustrie in den USA jedoch nicht in Frage gestellt.