A justificativa para o número de animais em experimentos é uma preocupação inerente aos pesquisadores que buscam precisão nos resultados observando as recomendações dos guias de cuidados com animais em pesquisa e ensino. Embora seja do conhecimento de estudiosos a importância do número de repetições, uma vez que o seu aumento resulta em estimativas mais precisas do erro experimental, o seu cálculo no planejamento de experimentos ainda provoca incertezas entre pesquisadores. A determinação do tamanho da amostra também tem fundamental importância nesse contexto, pois a questão que surge é: Aumentar o tamanho da amostra em detrimento do número de repetições ou diminuir o tamanho da amostra favorecendo o aumento no número de repetições? A resposta dependerá da variabilidade dentro da parcela, da variação residual (variância entre parcelas) e dos recursos disponíveis. No presente trabalho, estudou-se a relação entre a variabilidade dentro da parcela e a variância do erro para dados de peso de frangos de corte em experimento completamente casualizado com número diferente de indivíduos por parcela. Tal relação foi confrontada com o número necessário de repetições para detecção de diferenças, entre as médias dos tratamentos, de 5 e 50 gramas, respectivamente, para os 7 e 42 dias. Verificou-se uma grande variabilidade entre os pesos individuais dentro da parcela, provavelmente, consequente da diferença entre as distribuições de pesos dos machos e das fêmeas que se encontravam dentro da mesma parcela no experimento descrito. Constatou-se o baixo poder de teste estatístico para detecção de 5 e 50 gramas, respectivamente, para os 7 e 42 dias e a necessidade de se aumentar o número necessário de repetições, para experimentos similares, no caso em que se queira detectar tais diferenças entre os pesos com poder de teste de, aproximadamente, 0,80 e nível de 5% de significância. / The justification for the number of animals in experiments is an inherent concern for researchers seeking accurate results noting the recommendations of care guides with animals in research and teaching . Although it is known to scholars the importance of the number of replicates, since its increase results in more accurate estimates of experimental error, the calculation in planning experiments still causes uncertainty among researchers. The determination of sample size also has fundamental importance in this context because the question arises: Increasing the sample size rather than the number of replicates or decrease the size of the sample favoring an increase in the number of replicates? The answer will depend on the variability within the plot, the residual variance (variance between plots) and available resources. In this work, we studied the relationship between the variability within the plot and the error variance for data on weight of broilers in a completely randomized experiment with different number of individuals per plot. This relationship was compared to the number of replicates needed to detect differences between the treatment means of 5 and 50 grams, respectively, for 7 and 42 days. There was a large variability between individual weights within the plot, probably resulting from the difference between the distributions of weights of males and females who were in the same plot in the experiment described. It was found low power statistical test for detecting 5 and 50 grams, respectively, for 7 and 42 days and the need to increase the number of replicates required for similar experiments in the case where one wants to detect such differences the weights with the power of approximately 0,80 and the level of significance 5%.

Esta dissertação compreende um estudo da eficiência de estimadores dos parâmetros no modelo funcional com erro nas variáveis, com repetições para contornar o problema de falta de identificação. Nela, discute-se os procedimentos baseados nos métodos de máxima verossimilhança e escore corrigido. As estimativas obtidas pelos dois métodos levam a resultados similares. / This work is concerned with a study on the efficiency of parameter estimates in the functional linear relashionship with constant variances. Where the lack of identification is resolved of by considering replications. Estimation is dealt with by using maximum likelihood and the corrected score approach. Comparisons between the approaches are illustrated by using simulated data.

Esta dissertação compreende um estudo da eficiência de estimadores dos parâmetros no modelo funcional com erro nas variáveis, com repetições para contornar o problema de falta de identificação. Nela, discute-se os procedimentos baseados nos métodos de máxima verossimilhança e escore corrigido. As estimativas obtidas pelos dois métodos levam a resultados similares. / This work is concerned with a study on the efficiency of parameter estimates in the functional linear relashionship with constant variances. Where the lack of identification is resolved of by considering replications. Estimation is dealt with by using maximum likelihood and the corrected score approach. Comparisons between the approaches are illustrated by using simulated data.

A justificativa para o número de animais em experimentos é uma preocupação inerente aos pesquisadores que buscam precisão nos resultados observando as recomendações dos guias de cuidados com animais em pesquisa e ensino. Embora seja do conhecimento de estudiosos a importância do número de repetições, uma vez que o seu aumento resulta em estimativas mais precisas do erro experimental, o seu cálculo no planejamento de experimentos ainda provoca incertezas entre pesquisadores. A determinação do tamanho da amostra também tem fundamental importância nesse contexto, pois a questão que surge é: Aumentar o tamanho da amostra em detrimento do número de repetições ou diminuir o tamanho da amostra favorecendo o aumento no número de repetições? A resposta dependerá da variabilidade dentro da parcela, da variação residual (variância entre parcelas) e dos recursos disponíveis. No presente trabalho, estudou-se a relação entre a variabilidade dentro da parcela e a variância do erro para dados de peso de frangos de corte em experimento completamente casualizado com número diferente de indivíduos por parcela. Tal relação foi confrontada com o número necessário de repetições para detecção de diferenças, entre as médias dos tratamentos, de 5 e 50 gramas, respectivamente, para os 7 e 42 dias. Verificou-se uma grande variabilidade entre os pesos individuais dentro da parcela, provavelmente, consequente da diferença entre as distribuições de pesos dos machos e das fêmeas que se encontravam dentro da mesma parcela no experimento descrito. Constatou-se o baixo poder de teste estatístico para detecção de 5 e 50 gramas, respectivamente, para os 7 e 42 dias e a necessidade de se aumentar o número necessário de repetições, para experimentos similares, no caso em que se queira detectar tais diferenças entre os pesos com poder de teste de, aproximadamente, 0,80 e nível de 5% de significância. / The justification for the number of animals in experiments is an inherent concern for researchers seeking accurate results noting the recommendations of care guides with animals in research and teaching . Although it is known to scholars the importance of the number of replicates, since its increase results in more accurate estimates of experimental error, the calculation in planning experiments still causes uncertainty among researchers. The determination of sample size also has fundamental importance in this context because the question arises: Increasing the sample size rather than the number of replicates or decrease the size of the sample favoring an increase in the number of replicates? The answer will depend on the variability within the plot, the residual variance (variance between plots) and available resources. In this work, we studied the relationship between the variability within the plot and the error variance for data on weight of broilers in a completely randomized experiment with different number of individuals per plot. This relationship was compared to the number of replicates needed to detect differences between the treatment means of 5 and 50 grams, respectively, for 7 and 42 days. There was a large variability between individual weights within the plot, probably resulting from the difference between the distributions of weights of males and females who were in the same plot in the experiment described. It was found low power statistical test for detecting 5 and 50 grams, respectively, for 7 and 42 days and the need to increase the number of replicates required for similar experiments in the case where one wants to detect such differences the weights with the power of approximately 0,80 and the level of significance 5%.

Magister Scientiae Dentium - MSc(Dent) / The initiation of highly active antiretroviral therapy has shown to result in successful suppression of viral replications followed by an increase in CD4 lymphocytes, a partial recovery of T-cell specific immune responses and decrease susceptibility to opportunistic pathogens. Aim: The aim of the present study was to determine the prevalence of oral lesions in patients before and after undergoing HAART. Methods: The study design was longitudinal and descriptive, investigating the prevalence of oral lesions presenting in HIV/AIDS patients at baseline, 3 and 6 months after taking HAART. A convenience sample size of 200 participants was targeted. Results: 210 HIV positive patients participated at baseline. At 3 months, 96 (46%) and at 6 months, 52 (25%) were available for review respectively. At baseline 210 HIV positive patients were recruited into the study from three hospitals. Two infectious disease hospitals belonged to the City of Harare and the other is a government hospital. Just over two thirds were female (64.3%) and the age ranged as follows: 21-30 (17%); 31-40 (44%); 41-50 (26% and 51-60 (9%).Discussion: HAART appears to be effective in reducing the prevalence of oral lesions in persons with AIDS likely due to the immunological reconstitution. Oral candidiasis remains the most prevalent oral opportunistic infection in immuno-suppressed individuals and hence its important predictive value for immuno-suppression defined as CD4-cell count level <200/mL of blood. All oral lesions strongly associated with HIV infection with the exception of non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma were diagnosed at baseline. CD4 cell count level increased after initiation of HAART. T-lymphocytes that are formed after the introduction of HAART may not provide sufficient protection against some lesions like parotid gland disease and HPV conditions (planar warts). HAART failure was detected in some patients who had negative CD4-cell count at 6 months compared to the baseline parameters. Conclusions: HIV-positive patients experience oral pain during the course of their disease, eating, drinking and swallowing. Further longitudinal studies are required in order to ascertain the prevalence of these lesions at three and six months and the effect of HAART.

This report describes the development, deployment, and analysis of an experimental instructional unit using applied constructivism instructional design (ID). The ID template was used to integrate a high-fidelity simulator into an undergraduate health care degree curriculum in a private, not-for-profit university. A switching-replications experimental design was used with random assignment of volunteer participants to initial treatment and control groups. Quantitative analysis of learning outcomes using standardized assessments was performed, including correlational analysis for knowledge transfer of simulator skills to clinical skills. Statistically significant positive effects were found for the educational outcomes of participants when measuring both the knowledge and application of heart anatomical structures and views for examination of the heart with ultrasound. Mild positive correlations were found between performance on the simulator and performance in an actual clinical setting, with limited predictive value between the two. The switching-replications experimental design helped to control for potentially strong social effects that could have endangered internal validity and to maximize the data available for analysis. Many of the constructivist-based ID features of the educational unit resulted in positive feedback and participation from participants. However, cautionary findings relating to the ID features included the need to carefully evaluate their use, as there was a tendency for participants to not value the performance of certain features if they were not going to be graded, despite their likely educational benefit. Future research suggested includes repetition across similar institutions with disparate student populations, and use of the educational unit ID template to implement simulation technology in other educational realms. Other possibilities include determining the effects on learning outcomes of a more-realistic user interface (UI) design and/or increased realism (difficulty) in the simulation itself. Related qualitative-based research could include structured interviews to determine participant satisfaction and learning outlooks, and investigation of the learners’ thoughts and perceptions as they use actual ultrasound machines after practicing on the simulator through think-aloud and active interview techniques.

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