Reducing energy demand and carbon emissions from the UK housing stock through efficiency improvements is the focus of policy interest. The 2008 UK Climate Change Act set legally binding targets of an 80% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions against a 1990 baseline. The majority of emissions in the residential sector are carbon dioxide emissions arising from energy used for heating homes and water, cooking, lighting and electrical appliances. The sector s contribution to total UK emissions is significant and therefore reducing energy use in homes is an important factor if the UK is to meet its targets. In this research an initial survey of studies of the residential sector has been conducted to review factors considered to influence energy use and related emissions in UK housing. Further review identified energy and climate change policy instruments and structural change in the energy supply sector between 1970 and the present. A subsequent time-line of policy and events describes the changing, historical policy landscape related to energy efficiency improvements in the sector. As a result of these reviews, a need to better understand how householders have responded to technical energy efficiency improvements in housing, and the influence of social and economic factors, was identified as a research gap. In order to model householders historical behaviour Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) was identified as an innovative approach for this field of research as a potential means to measure sector efficiency in a new way. The analysis has two stages. In the first, DEA is used to measure the relative efficiency with which the UK housing sector has managed its energy use and related emissions to deliver energy services such as space heating and lighting to householders. In the second stage, multiple regressions are used to examine whether the variability over time in the efficiency measure can be explained by policy interventions, energy market developments, and economic and social factors. DEA is a method for modelling the relative performance efficiency with which an observed sample converts measurable inputs to quantitative outputs. In this research, samples consist of annual observations of the UK housing stock, using data largely taken from DECC s UK housing energy fact file. An efficiency frontier of performance enveloping the observed sample points as closely as possible is constructed through DEA mathematical programming. The core of the analysis lies in identifying relevant quantitative input and output measures from available data. A range of measures of comfort and energy service levels to represent energy service outputs, and household energy and emissions data to represent inputs are examined in the analysis. The result is a timeline of efficiency performance that can be related to socio-economic change and the history of policy interventions. The analysis shows that the efficiency of the UK housing stock to manage its energy use and related emissions has not followed the steady upward trend that might have been expected from technical innovation. There is evidence of rebound effects over time, with householders behaviour in response to technical efficiency improvements acting to raise comfort levels rather than lower energy usage. Nevertheless, statistically significant roles can be identified for factors such as income, price and tenure which have implications for policy design and control and lead to a number of policy recommendations.

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In the context of climate change and heightened concerns about our energy future, academics and policy makers have taken an interest in the different motivational factors influencing individuals’ energy-use behavior. One area of particular interest is the role of information and other non-financial motivators: When traditional financial incentives are not appropriate or inadequate, are there alternative means we can use to encourage energy conservation? Our research looks at the effect of two different types of information programs used to promote household energy conservation: feedback and social nudges. To do this we conducted a field experiment at a family housing complex where the cost of electricity is included in the rent. Residents were presented with weekly Home Electricity Reports [HERs] with feedback on their electricity use. A portion of the residents additionally received HERs with information about how their electricity consumption compared to their neighbors (a social nudge). We then monitored households’ electricity-use to see if we could detect any changes. Overall we estimated a 1.4 percent reduction in energy-use as a result of the feedback treatment. This figure increased to a 3.9 percent reduction when the sample was restricted to households that received low-user status during the pre-treatment period. Low-users also appeared to react to the social nudge, however, the reaction depended on whether the household had received an HER indicating that it consumed above- or below- average the week before. Time-of-day analysis suggested that the majority of the changes in electricity-use behavior occurred during evening and night hours.

Individual and societal desires for fossiluel independence are an increasingly popular goal. This research investigates residential geothermal space heating and cooling as a viable technical and financial alternative. The road to net-zero energy is then assessed, weighing the benefits and detriments to the consumer. First, the template for location-specific geothermal space heating and cooling is developed through a pilot analysis of a home in Memphis, Tennessee. A methodical process of soil investigation, prototype home characteristics, and financial incentives is designed. Expanding upon existing studies, accurate soil data is extracted from beneath the foundation of a specific address, rather than region-wide soil averages. This high level of precision allows the owner of a specific address to preview realistic results and develop truthful expectations. Payback period and system lifetimes savings are calculated using two methods. Second, the framework developed through the Memphis, Tennessee pilot home is used to investigate 11 additional cities across the continental United States. The increase in breadth uses a representative city from its respective climate zone. While each city within a single climate zone will vary from the representative city, a general climate performance can be determined. With each location’s soil properties and heating and cooling demands, the borefield design and heat pump system capacity is customized and applied for analysis. Using human interest surveys from previous energy projects, a climate is ultimately classified as viable or nonviable for geothermal heating and cooling. Finally, the increasingly popular net-zero energy building concept is explored through a complementary solar photovoltaic (PV) array to the geothermal system. An array capacity is sized and priced to offset the total facility energy use in each climate’s representative city. Once determined, the payback and lifetime savings values are calculated and the GHP + PV system results are compared to a baseline + PV system. From this, a system type is identified as the more viable option for each of the 12 climate zones. The final touch on this research is the introduction of the human perceptions toward environmentally friendly renewable energy in general and how it affects a consumer’s ultimate decision.

Achieving sustainable consumption of energy is an important issue due to the increasing demand for energy and its environmental impact. One of the biggest consumers of the global energy production is the residential sector. Factors determining pattern of energy consumption in this sector are firstly, characteristics of the buildings and equipment and appliances which are used inside them and secondly, people who are using the buildings. The former could be approached by using efficiency strategies; i.e. designing and using materials and utilities which are low energy demanding or reducing consumption of energy. The latter could be reached by adoption of demand side management strategies which could improve pattern of energy consumption by the end users. Combining these strategies bring out energy-smart buildings with energy-smart people as the users. This project aims at introducing potential approaches to strategies of promoting sustainable behavior regarding energy consumption in individuals, with the focus on the students of Linköping University living in the properties of housing company of the city, Studentbostäder. For fulfilling this purpose, literature review has been done for finding influencing factors on and strategies for shaping of pro-environmental behavior. In the next step, two projects with focus on demand side management for changing energy consumption of individuals have been studied. Afterward, a questionnaire based on the results of the literature review was prepared and used to gain an understanding of first: attitude, values, knowledge, and awareness of students of Linköping University regarding environmental issues, and second: point of view of the students toward the strategies for shaping pro-environmental behavior. Results of the above mentioned methods were used for identifying characteristics of a demand side management project based on provision of feedback on energy consumption for the users. It has been proposed that designing and implementing such project has the potential of affecting pattern of energy consumption by people and lead to its reduction, especially among students accommodating at housing company of city of Linköping, Studentbostäder. More studies are needed for finding feasibility of implementing such project.

Micro-cogeneration is one of the technologies promoted as a response to the global call for the reduction of carbon emissions. Due to its recent application in the residential sector, the implications of its usage have not yet been fully explored, while at the same time, the available simulation tools are not designed for conducting research that focuses on the study of this technology. This thesis develops a virtual prototyping environment, using a dynamic multi-physics simulation tool. The model based procedure in its current form focuses on ICE based micro-CHP systems. In the process of developing the models, new approaches on general system, engine, heat exchanger, and dwelling thermal modelling are being introduced to cater for the special nature of the subject. The developed software is a unique modular simulation tool platform linking a number of independent energy generation systems, and presents a new approach in the study and design of the multi node distributed energy system (DES) with the option of further development into a real-time residential energy management system capable of reducing fuel consumption and CO2 emissions in the domestic sector. In the final chapters, the developed software is used to simulate various internal combustion engine based micro-CHP configurations in order to conclude on the system design characteristics, as well as the conditions, necessary to achieve a high technical, economic and environmental performance in the UK residential sector with the purpose of making micro- CHP a viable alternative to the conventional means of heat & power supply.

Micro-cogeneration is one of the technologies promoted as a response to the global call for the reduction of carbon emissions. Due to its recent application in the residential sector, the implications of its usage have not yet been fully explored, while at the same time, the available simulation tools are not designed for conducting research that focuses on the study of this technology. This thesis develops a virtual prototyping environment, using a dynamic multi-physics simulation tool. The model based procedure in its current form focuses on ICE based micro-CHP systems. In the process of developing the models, new approaches on general system, engine, heat exchanger, and dwelling thermal modelling are being introduced to cater for the special nature of the subject. The developed software is a unique modular simulation tool platform linking a number of independent energy generation systems, and presents a new approach in the study and design of the multi node distributed energy system (DES) with the option of further development into a real-time residential energy management system capable of reducing fuel consumption and CO2 emissions in the domestic sector. In the final chapters, the developed software is used to simulate various internal combustion engine based micro-CHP configurations in order to conclude on the system design characteristics, as well as the conditions, necessary to achieve a high technical, economic and environmental performance in the UK residential sector with the purpose of making micro- CHP a viable alternative to the conventional means of heat & power supply.

This dissertation employ applied microeconomics techniques with a specific emphasis on behavioral dynamics within the realms of energy and environmental economics. In Chapter one, we investigates the impact of outdoor temperature on productivity in the service sector, using data from the India Human Development Survey. Our findings suggest a precisely estimated zero effect on interview duration, ruling out significant productivity impacts. In Chapter two, we employs a conditional demand analysis on a Canadian electricity consumer data set, highlighting the effectiveness of local heat pumps and thermostat setbacks for electricity savings. Results also reveal trends favoring newer homes in electricity consumption decline. In Chapter three, I study the causal relationship of spatial peer effects from Canada's largest home energy efficiency retrofit program on energy consumption. My results show that close neighbors to energy efficiency retrofitted homes experience a significant reduction in monthly natural gas and electricity consumption. Moreover, visible retrofits, such as windows and doors, significantly impact peer energy savings compared to less visible retrofits.

The purpose of this examination is to see how energy efficiency measures affect peak loads in multifamily buildings. In addition, how much of an energy share warm water has in peak loads. The Swedish building sector represents 40 % of all energy used. The thesis was restricted to multifamily buildings, which is dominated by district heating. The most common energy measures to save peak cost and reduce peak loads that are focus in this thesis work, e.g. changing windows, isolate walls and attics but also lowering indoor temperature. It was assumed in the thesis that the cost of peak loads will increase in the future and therefore the choice of energy efficiency measures is important. The calculations to determine the effectiveness of the energy measures where done by using hourly temperature data from the year 2014 in combination with, known investment costs for each energy measure. The only measures that went with profit over a 40-year period was the attics isolation and lower indoor temperature. The highest peak load savings in heating was the change of windows and wall isolation, but the investment cost was too high to gain a profit. The conclusion is that the best energy efficiency measures are attic isolation and lower indoor temperature because of its low investment cost and quick payback time, but also effective at lowering peak load by reducing the temperature difference between outdoor and indoor temperature in multifamily buildings. The analysis of warm water energy's share of the peak loads varied much between the 15 given multifamily buildings, where a base load and a peak load where compared. The result was between 10-50 % were the difference between the buildings warm water energy share off the peak loads. It where concluded that a standard value of 20 % would give much inaccuracy in determining the warm water share. It is therefore, suggested to use this method to determine the warm water share of the hourly peak load. / I detta arbete har syftet varit att hitta de vanligaste energieffektiviseringsåtgärderna som görs idag i det svenska bostadsbeståndet. Energieffektiviseringsåtgärderna påverkar effekttoppar i flerbostadshus och har undersökts. Om det antas att energiprisstrukturen går mot en mer effektbaserad taxa kan åtgärderna få större påverkan på energipriset i framtiden. I arbetet har varmvattnets andel av timeffekttoppar undersökts, med stöd av energianvändningsdata från 15 anonymiserade flerbostadshus med fjärrvärme. Energianvändningen i bostadsbeståndet står för ca 40 % av Sveriges energianvändning. Det ställs då krav på de lågenergihus som byggs idag och vid renovering av hus att möta Sveriges som såväl EU 2020 målet att minska energianvändningen i bostäder genom att implementera energieffektiviseringsåtgärder. De vanligaste energieffektiviseringsåtgärderna i flerbostadshus har varit isolering av väggar och vind, installation av energiglas och frånluftssystem med värmeåtervinning. En sänkt inomhus temperatur har även medtagits. För fastighetsägare av flerbostadshus, där energianvändning för uppvärmning och varmvatten domineras av fjärrvärme är prisutvecklingen viktig. Om i framtiden ett antagande görs att el och fjärrvärmepriset övergår från en energibaserad taxa kr/kWh till en mer effektbaserad taxa kr/kW där kunden betalar för de högsta effekttopparna under ett år. I denna studie redovisas det när effekttoppar uppstår och vilka energieffektiviseringsåtgärder som påverkar effekttopparna i flerbostadshus. De högsta effekttopparna uppstår oftast under vinterårstiden då uppvärmningsbehovet är störst. I ett framtaget typbostadshus där de valda energiåtgärderna beräknades, det visade sig att energiglas minskar effektbehovet och effektpriset mest, därefter väggisolering med mineralull. Emellertid ger energiglas och väggisolerings åtgärderna ger förluster i lönsamhetsberäkningen. Det skiljer sig från tilläggsisolering med mineralull av vinden och sänkt inomhus temperatur som har en investerings vinst över en 40 års period. I beräkningarna användes temperaturdata från år 2012 både på typhuset innan och efter implementerad åtgärd.En viktig parameter vid minskning av uppvärmningsbehovet är U-värdet. Tilläggsisolering av vind samt sänkt temperatur är de åtgärder som rekommenderas då båda påverkar effektbehovet och ger en lönsam investering. Åtgärd vid fönster och väggar minskar dock uppvärmningsbehovet mest men ger en olönsam ekonomisk investering. Varmvattenandelen av den högsta timeffekttoppen över året togs fram genom att jämföra baslasten och effekttoppen under dagen då effektbehovet är som högst. Resultatet visade att varmvattenandelen av effekttoppen tycks variera mellan ca 10- 50 %. Varmvattenandelen av effekttoppen varierar stort och därför föreslås användningen av metoden i detta examensarbete istället för ett schablonvärde på 20 % vid undersökning av varmvattenandelen av timeffekttoppen.

A conjuntura nacional de crescimento econômico e populacional aliada aos programas habitacionais de combate ao déficit de moradias deixa antever o contínuo aumento da demanda energética no setor residencial, que deve ser alvo de políticas públicas de promoção de eficiência energética. O objetivo da presente dissertação é investigar o potencial do Código de Obras e Edificações (COE) do Município de São Paulo enquanto instrumento regulatório de promoção de eficiência energética e apresentar sugestões com vista à revisão do atual documento. Para tal dividiu-se a pesquisa em três temas: fatores que explicam o consumo energético (direto e indireto) das edificações e estratégias de minimização desse consumo; caracterização dos códigos de eficiência energética em edificações (CEEE), com destaque para o Código de Obras, e panorama internacional e brasileiro relativamente à sua adoção; caracterização do consumo energético do Município de São Paulo e análise dos requisitos de eficiência energética no atual COE. Atendendo à elevada taxa de novas construções e ao estoque de edifícios obsoletos com potencial de retrofitting defende-se que o Código de Obras, pela sua abrangência e obrigatoriedade, constitui um instrumento regulatório adequado à promoção da eficiência energética no setor de edificações no Município de São Paulo e sugere-se a revisão do atual COE com vista à introdução de requisitos de eficiência energética. Entre as sugestões apresentadas contam-se a segmentação das medidas dirigidas às moradias de interesse social e às chamadas edificações de mercado, definição de limites máximos para o valor de transmitância térmica dos elementos opacos da envoltória (paredes e cobertura) em ambientes condicionados e não condicionados e a exigência de um nível mínimo de eficiência energética para edificações e equipamentos instalados. Como contribuição da presente pesquisa cabe ainda destacar o cálculo da intensidade energética por unidade de área construída nos setores residencial e comercial no Município de São Paulo, indicador em falta na literatura e dados oficiais publicados. / The national economic and population growth in association with the housing programs to combat housing deficit are expected to result in future increase of energy demand in the residential sector. Considering the already high contribution of the building sector in the electricity consumption of Brazil, the development of policy measures aiming to promote energy efficiency in the sector should be encouraged. The main objective of this research is to investigate the potential of the Building Code (BC) of São Paulo municipality as a regulatory instrument to promote energy efficiency and make suggestions to revise it. To this end, the paper is divided in three parts: factors that explain the energy consumption (direct and indirect) of buildings and strategies to minimize it; characterization of Building Energy Efficiency Codes (BEEC) and the Brazilian and international panorama regarding its adoption; energy consumption of São Paulo municipality and analysis of energy efficiency requirements in the current BC. As a mandatory and comprehensive regulatory instrument, Building Codes are adequate do promote energy efficiency given the local reality of high annual rates of construction and the significant stock of old buildings which could benefit from retrofitting. Suggestions to a revision process of the BC of São Paulo Municipality include segmentation of energy efficient requirements according to social economic profile of buildings, definition of overall heat transfer coefficient values (U-factor) for building envelope components (walls and roof) of conditioned and non-conditioned areas, and definition of minimum energy efficiency levels for buildings and equipments. Additional contribution of this research includes estimation of electricity use per square meter of building floor area, for the residential and commercial sectors in São Paulo municipality.